Global Environmental Governance for UPSC: Rio Summits, SDGs, Agenda 21, GEF, Seabed Mining, Polar Code and the High Seas Treaty
How UPSC Tests Global Environmental Governance
🎯 Exam priority: Tier-2. Questions here ask what a summit or agreement is, who administers it and whether a statement describes it correctly. UPSC asked: the Sustainable Development Goals (2016: adopted by the UN in 2015, not proposed by the Club of Rome, and set for 2030); the Partnership for Action on Green Economy (2018: emerged from Rio+20); the Polar Code (2022: the International Maritime Organization's code for ships in polar waters); seabed mining in international waters (2021: licences from the International Seabed Authority, and India holds exploration rights for polymetallic nodules); greenwashing (2022); and the Global Compact for Migration (2023: non-binding, adopted in Marrakesh in 2018). Mains 2026 asked about the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (covered in the biodiversity article).
Use two boxes: a timeline (which summit led to which treaty) and ocean governance (who regulates the seas beyond national waters).
The Treaty and Summit Timeline
The treaty and summit timeline
Year | Event | What it produced |
1971 | Ramsar Convention | Wetlands (see the wetlands article) |
1972 | Stockholm UN Conference on the Human Environment | First global environment summit; created UNEP and triggered environmental laws such as India's Water Act (1974) |
1985 / 1987 | Vienna Convention / Montreal Protocol | Ozone layer; the Protocol phased out about 99 per cent of ozone-depleting substances |
1987 | Brundtland Report, Our Common Future | Defined sustainable development: meeting present needs without compromising future generations |
1989 | Basel Convention | Hazardous waste trade |
1992 | Rio Earth Summit (UNCED) | UNFCCC, Convention on Biological Diversity, Rio Declaration and Agenda 21; the Global Environment Facility was established on its eve |
1994 | UNCCD | Desertification and drylands |
1997 | Kyoto Protocol | First binding emission cuts for developed countries |
2002 | Johannesburg Summit (Rio+10, WSSD) | Affirmed full implementation of Agenda 21 and the Millennium Development Goals |
2012 | Rio+20 (UN Conference on Sustainable Development) | Two themes: a green economy for sustainable development and better institutional coordination; the Partnership for Action on Green Economy (PAGE) emerged (2018 PYQ); launched the process for the SDGs |
2015 | SDGs and Paris Agreement | 17 Sustainable Development Goals adopted by the UN to be reached by 2030 (2016 PYQ) |
2016 | Kigali Amendment | HFC phase-down |
2022 | Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework | Global biodiversity targets for 2030 |
The Global Environment Facility serves as a financial mechanism for the CBD, UNFCCC, Stockholm Convention, UNCCD and the Minamata Convention.
Oceans, the High Seas and Other Ideas
Oceans and the global commons
UNCLOS (1982) is the constitution of the oceans. The International Seabed Authority (ISA), not the Global Ocean Commission, licenses and oversees seabed mining in international waters (2021 PYQ). The seafloor holds polymetallic nodules and rare-earth minerals (2021 PYQ).
India and the ISA (secondary sources): a 15-year exploration contract for polymetallic nodules in the Central Indian Ocean Basin was signed on 25 March 2002 and extended in 2017 and again in 2023; a contract for polymetallic sulphides in the Central and South West Indian Ridges was signed in 2016; a new sulphides contract for the Carlsberg Ridge was signed on 15 September 2025.
Polar Code: the International Maritime Organization's code of safety for ships operating in polar waters (2022 PYQ).
High Seas Treaty (BBNJ): the Agreement on biodiversity beyond national jurisdiction reached its 60th ratification on 19 September 2025 and entered into force on 17 January 2026 (secondary sources; confirm the latest ratification count).
Other ideas the exam has used
Greenwashing: giving a false impression that a company's products or practices are environmentally friendly (2022 PYQ).
Global Compact for Migration: a non-binding agreement adopted in Marrakesh in 2018; it concerns international, not internal, migration, and not all UN members adopted it (2023 PYQ).
How UPSC Could Ask This Next
Chronology: which summit produced which treaty or body.
Administrators: ISA, IMO, UNEP, GEF and what each does.
Goals: SDG facts (2015, 17 goals, 2030).
Binding or not: compacts, declarations and protocols.
Further Reading
NCERT Biology (Class 12) and Geography textbooks, the India State of Forest Report, the MoEFCC Annual Report, the Economic Survey and the official lists cited in this note — the primary sources behind every figure above.
Test Yourself: Practice Questions and PYQs
Twelve practice questions on global summits, the SDGs and ocean governance, followed by the real UPSC Prelims questions and the exact Mains question.
Practice Questions
Q1. The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) were adopted by the United Nations in
(a) 1992
(b) 2002
(c) 2015
(d) 1972
Show answer
Answer: (c) — They are 17 goals to be achieved by 2030; the Club of Rome did not propose them.
Q2. The Partnership for Action on Green Economy emerged from
(a) Rio+20 (UN Conference on Sustainable Development, 2012)
(b) the Stockholm Conference, 1972
(c) the Paris Conference, 2015
(d) the Kyoto Conference, 1997
Show answer
Answer: (a) — UPSC's 2018 key.
Q3. The Polar Code is
(a) an Arctic Council fishing code
(b) a treaty on Antarctic territorial claims
(c) a code for polar research stations
(d) the International Maritime Organization's code of safety for ships in polar waters
Show answer
Answer: (d) — UPSC's 2022 question.
Q4. Licences for seabed mining in international waters are issued by
(a) the International Seabed Authority
(b) the World Bank
(c) UNEP
(d) the Global Ocean Commission
Show answer
Answer: (a) — India holds exploration rights for polymetallic nodules.
Q5. The Global Environment Facility was established on the eve of the
(a) 1992 Rio Earth Summit
(b) 1972 Stockholm Conference
(c) 1987 Montreal Protocol
(d) 2015 Paris Conference
Show answer
Answer: (a) — It serves as a financial mechanism for the CBD, UNFCCC, UNCCD and others.
Q6. Greenwashing is
(a) a method of water purification
(b) a type of carbon tax
(c) giving a false impression that a company's products are eco-friendly
(d) growing plants on roofs
Show answer
Answer: (c) — UPSC's 2022 question.
Q7. The Global Compact for Migration, 2018 is
(a) legally binding on all UN members
(b) non-binding and about international migration
(c) about internal displacement
(d) adopted by every UN member state
Show answer
Answer: (b) — It was adopted in Marrakesh.
Q8. Agenda 21 was adopted at the
(a) Rio Earth Summit, 1992
(b) Stockholm Conference, 1972
(c) Johannesburg Summit, 2002
(d) Rio+20, 2012
Show answer
Answer: (a) — It is the sustainable development action plan of UNCED.
Q9. The UN Conference on the Human Environment (1972) led to the creation of
(a) GEF
(b) IPCC
(c) UNFCCC
(d) UNEP
Show answer
Answer: (d) — UNEP was created after the Stockholm Conference.
Q10. The High Seas Treaty (BBNJ) entered into force on
(a) 17 January 2026
(b) 5 June 2022
(c) 1 January 2030
(d) 25 March 2002
Show answer
Answer: (a) — After the 60th ratification on 19 September 2025 (secondary sources).
Q11. Which of the following is a financial mechanism served by the Global Environment Facility?
1. Convention on Biological Diversity
2. Stockholm Convention
3. Minamata Convention
4. Ramsar Convention
(a) 1, 2 and 3 only
(b) 2 and 4 only
(c) 1 and 4 only
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
Show answer
Answer: (a) — GEF serves the CBD, UNFCCC, Stockholm, UNCCD and Minamata, but not Ramsar.
Q12. The Rio+20 Conference (2012) had two main themes. One of them was
(a) banning whaling
(b) creating the Ramsar list
(c) building a green economy for sustainable development
(d) adopting the Kyoto Protocol
Show answer
Answer: (c) — The other was better institutional coordination for sustainable development.
UPSC Previous Year Questions (PYQs)
Real UPSC Prelims questions, checked against the official paper and answer key.
Q1. (2016) Consider the following statements:
1. The Sustainable Development Goals were first proposed in 1972 by a global think tank called the 'Club of Rome'.
2. The Sustainable Development Goals have to be achieved by 2030.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) Both 1 and 2
(b) Neither 1 nor 2
(c) 2 only
(d) 1 only
Show answer
Answer: (c) — The Sustainable Development Goals were adopted by the UN in 2015, not proposed by the Club of Rome in 1972, and are to be achieved by 2030, so only 2 is correct.
Q2. (2018) The Partnership for Action on Green Economy (PAGE), a UN mechanism to assist countries transition towards greener and more inclusive economies, emerged at
(a) The Earth Summit on Sustainable Development 2002, Johannesburg
(b) The United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development 2012, Rio de Janeiro
(c) The World Sustainable Development Summit 2016, New Delhi
(d) The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate change 2015, Paris
Show answer
Answer: (b) — The Partnership for Action on Green Economy emerged from the Rio+20 conference (UN Conference on Sustainable Development, 2012).
Q3. (2022) Which one of the following statements best describes the 'Polar Code'?
(a) It is a set of norms to be followed by the countries whose scientists undertake research studies in the North Pole and South Pole.
(b) It is the international code of safety for ships operating in polar waters.
(c) It is a trade and security agreement of the member countries of the Arctic Council.
(d) It is the agreement of the countries around the North Pole regarding the demarcation of their territories in the polar region.
Show answer
Answer: (b) — The Polar Code is the International Maritime Organization's code of safety for ships operating in polar waters.
Q4. (2021) Consider the following statements:
1. The Global Ocean Commission grants licences for seabed exploration and mining in international waters.
2. India has received licences for seabed mineral exploration in international waters.
3. 'Rare earth minerals' are present on seafloor in international waters.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 1 and 3 only
(c) 2 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
Show answer
Answer: (c) — Seabed mining licences in international waters are issued by the International Seabed Authority, not the Global Ocean Commission, so 1 is wrong. India holds exploration rights for polymetallic nodules and the seafloor holds rare-earth minerals, so 2 and 3 are right.
Q5. (2022) Which one of the following best describes the term “greenwashing”?
(a) Non-inclusion of ecological/environmental costs in the Annual Financial Statements of a country.
(b) Making mandatory provision for environmental costs in a government project/programme.
(c) Ignoring the disastrous ecological consequences while undertaking infrastructure development.
(d) Conveying a false impression that a company's products are eco-friendly and environmentally sound
Show answer
Answer: (d) — Greenwashing is giving a false impression that a company's products are eco-friendly.
Q6. (2023) Consider the following statement :
1. Recently, all the countries of the United Nations have adopted the first-ever compact for international migration, the 'Global Compact for Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration (GCM)'.
2. The Objectives and commitments sated in the GCM are binding on the UN member countries.
3. The GCM addresses internal migration or internally displaced people also in its objectives and commitments.
How many of the above statements are correct?
(a) All three
(b) Only two
(c) None
(d) Only one
Show answer
Answer: (c) — The Global Compact for Migration is non-binding and was adopted in Marrakesh in 2018. It is about international migration (not internal displacement) and not all UN members adopted it, so none of the statements is correct.
Mains Practice Questions
Use these to frame full-length answers. You don't have to answer one exactly — they show the angles UPSC tests, so let them guide which points you cover.
Discuss the aim and goals of the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework. Mention India's commitments and initiatives to achieve the goals.
Trace the evolution of global environmental governance from the Stockholm Conference (1972) to the SDGs (2015).
What is the role of the International Seabed Authority? Assess the opportunities and risks of deep-sea mining for India.
Why is the High Seas Treaty important for marine biodiversity beyond national jurisdiction?
How does greenwashing undermine climate action, and what can regulators do?
UPSC Mains — Previous Years’ Questions on this topic (last 10 years)
These are the actual GS Mains questions UPSC has asked on this theme — real proof of how, and when, it is tested. Try to write a full answer to each.
2026 (GS-III): Discuss the aim and goals of Kunming-Montreal global biodiversity framework. Mention India's commitments and initiatives to achieve the goals and targets of this framework giving suitable examples. (Answer in 150 words)