# Indian Architecture I: Harappan Beginnings, Mauryan Pillars, Stupas and Rock-cut Caves Source: https://tracknation.in/story/indian-architecture-i-harappan-beginnings-mauryan-pillars-stupas-and-rock-cut-caves (TrackNation — free UPSC notes with PYQs) > A heavyweight guide to early Indian architecture: Harappan town planning and building (Mains 2025), Mauryan court art (pillars, the Sarnath lion capital, Barabar caves, Yakshi), the stupa — its parts, types and sites (Sanchi, Bharhut, Amaravati, Sannati, Piprahwa), rock-cut chaityas and viharas (Bhaja, Karle, Ajanta, Ellora, Kanheri), aniconic symbols and the first Buddha images — with every relevant PYQ, Mains frameworks and the questions UPSC could ask next. ## Start Here — Architecture Is the Single Biggest Culture Theme 🎯 **Exam priority: High-yield (T1).** *Prelims has asked about Ajanta versus Mahabalipuram (2016), the rivers at the Ajanta, Sanchi and Amaravati gorges (2021), the origin of the stupa (2023), the Amaravati stupa (2026), an empty seat in Buddhist iconography (2026) and cave shrines such as Bhaja (2023). In Mains: Buddhist stupa art (2016), rock-cut architecture as a source (2020) and Harappan architecture (2025).* This is the first of three architecture articles in the Part C plan (stupas, caves and pillars here; temples next; Indo-Islamic and colonial after). Learn three things for each monument: **who built it and when**, **what it looks like** (plan and features) and **what it tells us**. ## Harappan Architecture (Mains 2025) Mains 2025 asked, for 10 marks and 150 words: *Discuss the salient features of the Harappan architecture.* | **Feature** | **Evidence** | | Town planning | Grid of streets cutting at right angles; citadel (west, higher) and lower town (east) at Mohenjodaro, Harappa, Kalibangan; Dholavira in three parts (citadel, middle and lower town) | | Building material | Standardised baked bricks in the ratio 1:2:4 (mud bricks too); brick, stone (Dholavira) and timber | | Public buildings | The Great Bath (Mohenjodaro) with waterproofing; granaries at Harappa, Mohenjodaro; Dholavira's stadium, reservoirs and sign-board; Lothal's dockyard and Kalibangan's fire altars | | Houses and drainage | Houses around courtyards with wells and bathrooms; covered drains along streets with inspection holes and soak pits; no temples have been established | | Fortification | Citadel walls and bastions in most sites; Dholavira's elaborate gates | | Water management | Dholavira's cascade of reservoirs cut into rock (the UNESCO site, 2021), wells of Mohenjodaro | - **Answer skeleton:** introduction — an urban civilisation of c. 2600–1900 BCE; planned grid and a hierarchical layout; baked brick of standard size; public works; houses, drains and water management; fortification; absence of grand temples or palaces; legacy — urban planning concepts in modern drainage and grid cities; limits — no evidence of monumental religious architecture. The 2026 Prelims asked about Harappan archaeological findings (spindle-whorls, weights, courtyard houses with wells). - Dholavira's sophisticated water-harvesting system (the 2021 PYQ asked which ancient town is known for series of dams and channels connecting reservoirs — Dholavira) was inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2021. ## Mauryan Architecture and Sculpture The NCERT distinguishes the Mauryan pillars from the Achaemenid ones: the Mauryan are *monolithic rock-cut shafts* showing the carver's skill, whereas Achaemenid pillars were built in pieces by masons. The capitals carry vigorous bull, lion and elephant figures on square or circular abaci with stylised lotuses; the surface is highly polished. | **Element** | **Description (Sarnath lion capital)** | | Shaft | Polished, monolithic sandstone (Chunar); now broken | | Base | Inverted lotus (bell) with a rim | | Abacus (drum) | Circular, with a chakra of 24 spokes and four animals in vigorous motion: elephant, bull, galloping horse and lion | | Crown | Four addorsed (back-to-back) lions facing the four directions | | Crowning element | A large Dharmachakra (now broken and kept in the Sarnath museum) | | Adopted as | National emblem: the capital without the lotus base and the crowning wheel; 'Satyameva Jayate' added; the 24-spoke wheel is in the flag | - **Where the pillars are:** Basarah-Bakhira, Lauriya-Nandangarh, Rampurva (Bihar), Sankisa and Sarnath (Uttar Pradesh). Sanchi has a fragment of a lion capital. - **Yaksha–Yakshi sculpture.** Monumental standing figures with a polished surface at Parkham (Mathura), Didarganj (Patna — the chauri-bearer Yakshi, a tall, well-built sandstone figure), Besnagar, Patna and Vidisha: evidence of the popularity of Yaksha worship absorbed by Buddhism and Jainism. Terracotta figurines show a different, lively tradition. The rock-cut elephant at Dhauli (Odisha) is modelled in the round with linear rhythm and sits next to an Ashokan edict. - **Rock-cut caves at Barabar** near Gaya: the Lomas Rishi cave, whose facade imitates wooden architecture with a semicircular chaitya arch and an elephant frieze; NCERT describes it as donated for the Ajivika sect, while the cave's own surviving inscription is a later Maukhari one — a distinction useful in Mains. Interior: rectangular hall with a circular chamber at the back. - **Palaces and cities.** The 80-pillared hall at Kumrahar, Pataliputra; stone-polishing skills; the Great Stupa at Sanchi began as a brick stupa under Ashoka; the Bairat stupa (Rajasthan) also dates to the third century BCE. - **Court art versus popular art.** Court: pillars with edicts, palace halls, the Sarnath capital; popular: Yakshas and Yakshis, terracotta and caves. See the Mauryan article for the historical context. ## The Stupa — Parts, Types and Sites A stupa is a mound-shaped Buddhist monument, originally a burial mound built over relics of the Buddha or of monks. The 2023 PYQ's three statements are a good way into the topic: the concept of the stupa is *pre-Buddhist* (it adopted an earlier burial mound), stupas were generally repositories of relics, and they were votive and commemorative structures in Buddhist tradition — so two of three are correct. | **Part** | **Function** | | Anda | Hemispherical dome over the relic | | Harmika | Square railing on top of the dome | | Chhatra / yashti | Umbrella(s) on a mast above the harmika — honour and protection | | Medhi | Circular terrace/drum at the base | | Vedika | Stone railing around the circumambulatory path | | Pradakshinapatha | Path to walk clockwise around the stupa | | Toranas | Four ornate gateways (Sanchi, Satavahana period) carved with Jataka and life-of-the-Buddha scenes | - **Three classes** (tradition): *sarirak* (containing bodily relics), *paribhogik* (things used by the Buddha — alms bowl, bodhi tree) and *uddeshik* (votive, commemorating events). Jain stupas (Mathura, Kankali Tila) also exist. - **Stupas of the Buddha's relics** at Rajagriha, Vaishali, Vethadipa, Pava (Bihar), Kapilavastu, Allakappa, Ramagrama (Nepal), Kushinagar and Pippalivana (UP), according to the texts. | **Site (state)** | **Dynasty / date (c.)** | **Key points** | | Piprahwa (UP) | 5th–3rd c. BCE | Excavated 1898; relic casket inscribed in early Brahmi for the Sakyas; the gems returned to India in 2025 | | Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh) | Ashoka (brick core); Shungas (stone cladding, railings); Satavahanas (four toranas); Guptas (Buddha images) | Stupa 1 (Great Stupa), Stupas 2 and 3, Temple 17 and 18; UNESCO 1989; stone carving of Jataka stories; Buddha shown by symbols | | Bharhut (Madhya Pradesh) | Shunga; 2nd c. BCE | Railings and gateway; Queen Maya's dream, Ruru Jataka; sculptures at the Indian Museum, Kolkata; tall Yaksha–Yakshi figures | | Bodh Gaya (Bihar) | Mauryan, Shunga, Gupta | Mahabodhi temple (UNESCO 2002); railing reliefs | | Amaravati (Andhra) | Satavahana / Ikshvaku; 1st–3rd c. CE | Domed stupa covered with relief slabs; tribhanga figures and complex composition; Buddha image added later; slabs in Chennai and the British Museum | | Nagarjunakonda, Goli, Jaggayyapeta (Andhra) | Ikshvaku; 3rd c. CE | Flowing, low-relief narratives; earliest brick Hindu temples at Nagarjunakonda | | Sannati–Kanaganahalli (Karnataka) | Mauryan–Satavahana | Largest excavated stupa site (per NCERT); the 'Ranyo Ashoka' relief | | Sarnath (UP) | Mauryan–Gupta | Dhamek stupa; lion capital; Gupta Buddha images with transparent drapery | | Devnimori (Gujarat), Kesariya (Bihar) | Gupta / post-Gupta | Stupa sites outside the Ganga plain; Kesariya is one of India's tallest stupas | ### How stupa sculpture evolved (NCERT) - **Bharhut (2nd c. BCE):** low relief, flat figures close to the picture plane, 'tilted' perspective, narratives with few characters and 'continuous' storytelling (Ruru Jataka); folded hands clinging to the chest because shallow carving did not allow projection. - **Sanchi Stupa 1:** high relief filling the space, naturalistic postures, a lower and upper pradakshinapatha and four toranas; historical scenes (siege of Kushinara, Ashoka's visit to the Ramagrama stupa); the Buddha still shown by symbols. - **Amaravati and the Vengi school:** the whole dome is covered with relief; slender tribhanga figures with intense emotion and movement; complex overlapping; later, Buddha images in the drum slabs (2nd–3rd c. CE). NCERT describes the 2026 PYQ's third statement: its influence passed to Sri Lanka and South-East Asia, and the stupa stood in the lower Krishna valley. - **Mathura and Gandhara:** the first anthropomorphic Buddha — Mathura from the Yaksha model; Gandhara with Hellenistic features. See the Sculpture article. ### Aniconic symbols (Buddha before images) | **Symbol** | **Meaning** | | Lotus and bull | Birth (Lumbini) | | Horse | The Great Renunciation (Mahabhinishkramana) | | Bodhi tree / empty seat | Enlightenment and meditation (the 2026 PYQ: an empty seat = the meditation of the Buddha) | | Wheel (chakra) | The first sermon (Dhammachakkappavattana) | | Stupa | Mahaparinirvana | | Footprints (buddhapada), parasol, triratna | Presence and honour of the Buddha, the Triple Gem | ### In the news - In July 2025 the **Piprahwa gems**, found at a stupa in Piprahwa (Siddharthnagar district, UP) in 1898 by W.C. Peppé and linked to the Buddha's relics, were returned to India after a planned Hong Kong auction was halted; a Godrej group firm bought them for public display. The site's inscribed relic vessel names the Sakya clan. - The ASI's conservation plan for the Sannati–Kanaganahalli stupa (2022) and the UNESCO status of Sanchi (1989) and Mahabodhi (2002). ## Rock-cut Architecture — Chaityas, Viharas and the Great Cave Sites Mains 2020 asked: *The rock-cut architecture represents one of the most important sources of our knowledge of early Indian art and history. Discuss.* - **Types.** The *chaitya* hall (a prayer hall with a stupa at the back; the commonest is the apsidal vault-roof hall with a semicircular chaitya-arch facade imitating a wooden building) and the *vihara* (a veranda, a hall and cells around it for the monks' residence). Three plans in Maharashtra: (i) apsidal vault-roof chaityas (Ajanta, Pitalkhora, Bhaja); (ii) pillarless apsidal halls (Thana-Nadsur); (iii) flat-roofed quadrangular halls with a circular chamber (Kondivite). Later, the quadrangular flat-roofed type was most preferred, and a stupa was added at the back of viharas, forming chaitya-viharas. - **Phases.** Hinayana phase (2nd c. BCE–2nd c. CE: symbolic Buddha, simple halls); Mahayana phase (5th–6th c. CE: Buddha images, elaborate carving, paintings). | **Site (state)** | **Religion and period** | **Notes** | | Barabar and Nagarjuni (Bihar) | Ajivika; Mauryan (3rd c. BCE) | Earliest rock-cut caves; highly polished interior; Lomas Rishi's ogee arch with an elephant frieze copies wood | | Bhaja, Pitalkhora, Kondane, Bedsa (Maharashtra) | Buddhist; 2nd c. BCE | Early apsidal chaitya halls with a wooden facade imitated in stone; Bhaja has a group of stupas of monks | | Karle (Maharashtra) | Buddhist; Satavahana 1st c. BCE–2nd c. CE | Largest rock-cut chaitya hall: courtyard, screen wall, veranda, pillared apsidal hall, stupa at the back | | Nashik (Pandavleni), Junnar | Buddhist; Satavahana and Kshatrapa | Vihara caves with inscriptions of Nahapana and Gautamiputra; Junnar has over 200 caves | | Kanheri (Mumbai) | Buddhist | About 100 caves; a model of continued excavation | | Ajanta (Maharashtra) | Buddhist; 2nd c. BCE–6th c. CE | 29 caves; chaityas 9, 10 (early) and 19, 26 (Gupta–Vakataka); murals; patrons: Harishena's minister Varahadeva (Cave 16), Upendragupta (17–20), Buddhabhadra (26); UNESCO 1983 | | Ellora (Maharashtra) | Buddhist (1–12), Hindu (13–29), Jain (30–34); Rashtrakuta (6th–10th c.) | Kailasa temple (Cave 16, Krishna I) — the world's largest monolithic rock excavation, top-down; Vishvakarma (Cave 10) the only chaitya; UNESCO 1983 | | Elephanta (Mumbai) | Shaiva; 6th–8th c. | Trimurti (Sadashiva) sculpture; UNESCO 1987 | | Udayagiri–Khandagiri (Odisha) | Jain; Kharavela, 1st c. BCE | Hathigumpha inscription; Rani Gumpha sculpture | | Badami, Aihole (Karnataka) | Hindu, Jain; Chalukyan | Rock-cut caves with the earliest structural temples nearby | | Mahabalipuram (Tamil Nadu) | Pallava; 7th c. | Mandapas, monolithic rathas, open-air relief (see the Pallava section in the post-Gupta article) | | Bagh (Madhya Pradesh), Undavalli (Andhra) | Buddhist, Vishnu | Murals (Bagh); multi-storeyed Undavalli | ### Ajanta in detail - Ajanta (Aurangabad district) has 29 caves, four of them chaityas (9, 10, 19 and 26), in the gorge of the Waghora river — the 2021 PYQ's correct statement. Murals survive from the first century BCE (Caves 9 and 10) and the fifth century CE (Caves 1, 2, 16, 17). Cave 26 houses a huge Mahaparinirvana image. No precise chronology exists because few inscriptions are dated. - The 2016 PYQ compared Ajanta and Mahabalipuram: what they share is that both have rock-cut monuments; they were built in different periods (Ajanta over centuries from the second century BCE to the sixth century CE; Mahabalipuram in the seventh century) and belong to different religions (Buddhism versus Shaiva-Vaishnava Hinduism). The answer is 'only 3'. ### Answer skeleton — Mains 2020 - **Art:** the evolution of the facade and plan (wooden models to stone), sculpture and painting, the Hinayana–Mahayana shift, the first Buddha images, tribhanga figures; **History:** donor inscriptions (royal, guild and lay devotees) show patronage patterns and trade routes (Karle, Nashik, Junnar on the Konkan–Deccan roads), dynastic chronology (Nahapana, Gautamiputra, Harishena), religious developments (Ajivikas, Jainism, Buddhism, then Brahmanical caves), social history (guild donations, women donors) and technology; **Limits:** poor dating at some sites, religious bias of the record. ## Hindu and Jain Rock-cut Art, and Buddhist Mudras - **Hindu rock-cut art.** The Udayagiri caves at Vidisha (Gupta; the colossal Varaha rescuing the Earth), the Badami caves (Cave 3, Vishnu, dated 578 CE; Cave 1 Shiva), the Mahabalipuram mandapas and monolithic rathas, Elephanta's Sadashiva, Ellora's Dashavatara (Cave 15) and Ravana ki Khai, Undavalli's Vishnu cave, and the Kailasa temple (Cave 16). - **Jain rock-cut art.** The Udayagiri–Khandagiri caves of Kharavela (Hathigumpha inscription, Rani Gumpha reliefs), the Ellora Jain group (Cave 32, Indra Sabha), the Badami Jain cave, Sittanavasal (Pudukkottai, with ceiling paintings, 7th–9th c.), the Kalugumalai reliefs and the Gommateshwara colossus at Shravanabelagola (981 CE). - **Why the caves matter historically:** they preserve wooden models in stone (ribs, beams), donor inscriptions (guilds, women, merchants), evidence of trade routes, and early painting. ### Buddhist hand gestures (mudras) — common Prelims item | **Mudra** | **Gesture** | **Meaning and typical image** | | Dharmachakra-pravartana | Both hands before the chest, joined as if turning a wheel | The first sermon — Sarnath Buddhas of the Gupta period | | Bhumisparsha | Right hand touches the earth | Calling the earth to witness the Buddha's steadfastness against Mara at enlightenment | | Abhaya | Raised right hand, palm outward | Fearlessness and protection — Mathura Buddhas | | Dhyana | Both hands in the lap, palms up | Meditation | | Varada | Open palm of the lowered hand | Granting boons and charity | | Vitarka | Thumb and forefinger joined | Teaching and argument | ### Later Buddhist sites | **Site** | **Notes** | | Nalanda, Vikramashila, Odantapuri (Bihar) | Mahaviharas (universities) with brick stupas, temples and monastic cells; Nalanda is a UNESCO site (2016) | | Ratnagiri, Lalitgiri, Udayagiri (Odisha — the 'Diamond Triangle') | Buddhist monasteries and stupas of the 7th–12th centuries; Vajrayana images | | Taxila (Dharmarajika stupa, Sirkap), Takht-i-Bahi (Pakistan) | Gandharan stupa-monastery complexes | | Tabo, Alchi (Ladakh and Spiti) | Later Indo-Tibetan Buddhist art in the Himalayas | | Ghantasala, Salihundam, Bavikonda (Andhra) | Stupa-monasteries; Salihundam is a Buddhist site, not a rock-cut cave shrine (a 2024 PYQ trap) | ## How UPSC Has Asked It — And What Could Come Next - **Seen:** comparison of two sites (2016), geographical setting (2021), concept of the stupa (2023), cave shrines (2023), Amaravati (2026), iconography (2026); Mains: Buddhist stupa art (2016), rock-cut architecture (2020), Harappan architecture (2025). - **Likely next:** the parts of a stupa and which are Buddhist additions; Sanchi's toranas and builders by period; Bharhut versus Sanchi versus Amaravati reliefs; chaitya versus vihara; which Ajanta caves are chaityas (9, 10, 19, 26) and which are painted; Ellora's religious composition (12 Buddhist, 17 Hindu, 5 Jain); Elephanta; Karle's rank; Lomas Rishi's arch; the Piprahwa relics; the National Emblem's features. - **Traps:** the stupa is pre-Buddhist in origin; Ajanta murals are not all frescoes (many are tempera on dry plaster); Ellora's Kailasa is Rashtrakuta, not Pallava; Barabar is Ajivika, not Buddhist; the Sarnath capital has four lions and a 24-spoke wheel; the Bharhut railing is Shunga, not Mauryan. ## Further Reading - Standard NCERT-level texts and reference books on ancient, medieval and cultural Indian history (any UPSC reading list). ## Test Yourself: Practice Questions & PYQs For each monument, give period, patron, form and message. ## Practice Questions **Q1.** Which part of a stupa is the square railing at the top of the dome? - (a) Medhi - (b) Vedika - (c) Harmika - (d) Anda **Answer: (c)** — The harmika sits above the anda and supports the chhatra; vedika is the railing around the base path. **Q2.** The four toranas of the Great Stupa at Sanchi were added in the: - (a) Shunga period - (b) Satavahana period - (c) Mauryan period - (d) Gupta period **Answer: (b)** — The toranas date to the Satavahana period; the Shungas cased the stupa in stone and the Guptas added Buddha images. **Q3.** The Bharhut stupa sculptures are today displayed mostly in: - (a) The Indian Museum, Kolkata - (b) The British Museum - (c) The Chennai Museum - (d) The National Museum, Delhi **Answer: (a)** — Many Bharhut reliefs are in the Indian Museum, Kolkata; Amaravati slabs are in Chennai and London. **Q4.** The largest rock-cut chaitya hall in India is at: - (a) Bhaja - (b) Pitalkhora - (c) Kanheri - (d) Karle **Answer: (d)** — Karle's chaitya hall, with a courtyard, screen wall and an apsidal pillared hall, is the grandest. **Q5.** How many caves at Ellora are Buddhist, Hindu and Jain respectively? - (a) 5, 12 and 17 - (b) 10, 17 and 7 - (c) 12, 17 and 5 - (d) 17, 12 and 5 **Answer: (c)** — Caves 1–12 are Buddhist, 13–29 Hindu and 30–34 Jain. **Q6.** The Kailasa temple at Ellora (Cave 16) was built by: - (a) Pulakeshin II - (b) Krishna I - (c) Narasimhavarman I - (d) Rajaraja I **Answer: (b)** — The Rashtrakuta king Krishna I (8th century); carved top-down from a single rock. **Q7.** The Didarganj Yakshi is made of: - (a) Bronze - (b) Polished sandstone - (c) Granite - (d) Terracotta **Answer: (b)** — A tall, polished sandstone chauri-bearer, now in the Patna Museum. **Q8.** In early Buddhist art, the wheel (chakra) represents: - (a) The renunciation - (b) The first sermon - (c) The birth - (d) The parinirvana **Answer: (b)** — The Dharmachakra stands for the first sermon at Sarnath. **Q9.** Which Mauryan site has the rock-cut elephant with an Ashokan edict? - (a) Rampurva - (b) Sanchi - (c) Dhauli - (d) Barabar **Answer: (c)** — The elephant at Dhauli, Odisha, is next to a Major Rock Edict site. **Q10.** The Sannati–Kanaganahalli stupa complex lies in: - (a) Odisha - (b) Andhra Pradesh - (c) Maharashtra - (d) Karnataka **Answer: (d)** — It is in the Kalaburagi district on the Bhima river. ### UPSC Previous Year Questions (PYQs) *Real UPSC Prelims questions on early architecture (2016–2026), answers matched to UPSC's official key (2026 is provisional). Explanations in our own words.* **Q11.** (UPSC Prelims 2016) What is/are common to the two historical places known as Ajanta and Mahabalipuram? 1. Both were built in the same period. 2. Both belong to the same religious denomination. 3. Both have rock-cut monuments. - (a) None of the statements given above is correct - (b) 3 only - (c) 1 and 2 only - (d) 1 and 3 only **Answer: (b)** — Only (3) is correct: both Ajanta and Mahabalipuram have rock-cut monuments. They were built in different periods (Ajanta from the 2nd century BCE to the 6th century CE; Mahabalipuram in the 7th century) and belong to different religions (Buddhist versus Hindu). **Q12.** (UPSC Prelims 2021) Which one of the following statements is correct? - (a) Pandu-lena Cave Shrines lie in the gorge of Narmada river. - (b) Amaravati Stupa lies in the gorge of Godavari river. - (c) Ajanta Caves lie in the gorge of Waghora river. - (d) Sanchi Stupa lies in the gorge of Chambal river. **Answer: (c)** — The Ajanta caves lie in the gorge of the Waghora river. Sanchi stands on a hill near the Betwa, the Pandu-lena shrines are at Nashik (Godavari area), and the Amaravati stupa is on the Krishna. **Q13.** (UPSC Prelims 2023) With reference to ancient India, consider the following statements: 1. The concept of Stupa is Buddhist in origin. 2. Stupa was generally a repository of relics. 3. Stupa was a votive and commemorative structure in Buddhist tradition. How many of the statements given above are correct? - (a) All three - (b) Only two - (c) None - (d) Only one **Answer: (b)** — The stupa was not invented by Buddhism: the concept is pre-Buddhist in origin. It was generally a repository of relics, and in the Buddhist tradition it was a votive and commemorative structure — so two statements are correct. **Q14.** (UPSC Prelims 2026, provisional key) What does an empty seat represent in early Buddhist iconography? - (a) The Buddha's Mahabhinishkramana - (b) The meditation of the Buddha - (c) The Buddha's Mahaparinibbana - (d) The Buddha's First Sermon **Answer: (b)** — An empty seat (or throne) in early Buddhist iconography stands for the meditation of the Buddha; the wheel stands for the first sermon, the stupa for the parinirvana and the horse for the renunciation. (Provisional key.) **Q15.** (UPSC Prelims 2026, provisional key) Which of the following statements on the Amaravati Stupa and its relief sculpture is/are correct? 1. It was located in the lower Krishna valley. 2. In India, it was next only to the Sanchi Stupa in size. 3. The Amaravati school of sculpture made a lasting impact on the later South Indian sculpture, and its products were carried to Sri Lanka and South-east Asia. Select the answer using the code given below: - (a) 2 and 3 only - (b) 1 only - (c) 1, 2 and 3 - (d) 1 and 3 only **Answer: (d)** — The Amaravati stupa was in the lower Krishna valley, and its sculpture influenced later South Indian art and travelled to Sri Lanka and South-East Asia. It was not 'next only to Sanchi in size' — it was bigger. (Provisional key.) ### Mains Practice Questions Use these to frame full-length answers. You don't have to answer one exactly — they show the angles UPSC tests, so let them guide which points you cover. - Discuss the salient features of Harappan architecture and what they reveal about the civilisation. - Compare the Mauryan court art with popular art. - Trace the evolution of the stupa from Bharhut to Amaravati. - Distinguish between a chaitya and a vihara, and describe the rock-cut caves of western India. - Why is Ajanta a unique repository of Indian art and history? ### Mains PYQs — Last 10 Years (UPSC GS-I) *The exact questions UPSC has actually asked on this topic over the last decade. Practise writing full-length answers to these.* - Discuss the salient features of the Harappan architecture. **(UPSC GS-I, 2025)** - The rock-cut architecture represents one of the most important sources of our knowledge of early Indian art and history. Discuss. **(UPSC GS-I, 2020)** - Early Buddhist Stupa-art, while depicting folk motifs and narratives, successfully expounds Buddhist ideals. Elucidate. **(UPSC GS-I, 2016)**