# Jainism & the Heterodox Ferment: Mahavira, Doctrines, the Great Schism & the Ajivikas Source: https://tracknation.in/story/jainism-the-heterodox-ferment-mahavira-doctrines-the-great-schism-the-ajivikas (TrackNation β€” free UPSC notes with PYQs) > Why did so many new religions erupt in sixth-century-BCE India, and what did Jainism teach? This guide explains the causes of the heterodox ferment (the kshatriya reaction, the new iron-age agrarian economy and ahimsa, vaishya support), the life of Vardhamana Mahavira, the core Jain doctrines (the five vows, the Three Jewels, anekantavada and karma), the Digambara–Svetambara schism and the councils, Jainism's spread and literary contribution, and the other heterodox sects β€” the Ajivikas and the ## Start Here β€” Why So Many New Religions? 🎯 **Exam priority: Important.** *UPSC tests the **causes** of the heterodox movements, the **Jain doctrines** and the **Jainism-vs-Buddhism contrast** (a recurring prelims trap). Know the five vows, the Three Jewels, the Digambara– Svetambara split, and the Ajivika/Charvaka sects.* The sixth century BCE was an age of intense religious questioning β€” Buddhist texts speak of as many as **62 sects**. The most important were **Jainism** and **Buddhism**. Why the ferment? - **The kshatriya reaction.** The rigid, birth-based four-varna order gave the brahmanas supremacy and many privileges; the **kshatriyas** resented this β€” and tellingly **both Mahavira and the Buddha were kshatriyas** who disputed brahmana authority. - **The new agrarian economy & ahimsa.** The deeper cause was economic: the spread of **iron** opened the Ganga plain to plough agriculture, which needed **cattle** β€” yet the Vedic cult of large-scale **animal sacrifice** was destroying them. A faith of **non-violence** suited the new settled economy. - **Vaishya support.** New cities, trade and the first **punch-marked coins** (5th c. BCE) raised the merchants (*setthis*), who ranked low in the brahmanical order and warmly backed the simpler new faiths. ## Vardhamana Mahavira Jainism's reviver was **Vardhamana Mahavira**, born about **540 BCE** (Jain tradition: 599 BCE) at Kundagrama near **Vaishali**, into a kshatriya (Jnatrika) clan; his mother was a Lichchhavi princess. He left home at **30**, wandered as an ascetic for **12 years**, and attained ***kaivalya*** (omniscience, supreme knowledge) at **42**. For this conquest of self he is called **Mahavira** ("great hero") and **Jina** ("conqueror") β€” from which "Jaina" comes. He preached for 30 years and died at **72**, around **468 BCE**, at **Pavapuri** near Rajgir. In Jain belief Mahavira was the **24th and last tirthankara** ("ford-maker"). The **first was Rishabhanatha (Adinatha)**, and the **23rd, Parshvanatha**, was a real historical predecessor (~8th c. BCE) who taught **four vows** β€” Mahavira added the fifth. ## The Doctrines of Jainism Jainism is a path of severe self-discipline to free the soul (*jiva*) from the **karma** that binds it to rebirth. Its ethics rest on **five great vows (mahavratas)**: | **The five vows (mahavratas)** | **Meaning** | | Ahimsa | Non-violence (the supreme vow) | | Satya | Truth | | Asteya | Non-stealing | | Aparigraha | Non-possession / non-attachment | | Brahmacharya | Celibacy / continence β€” the one added by Mahavira | The way to liberation is the **Three Jewels (Triratna)**: **right faith (samyak darshana), right knowledge (samyak jnana) and right conduct (samyak charitra)**. Its philosophy of **anekantavada** (the many-sidedness of reality) and **syadvada** ("it may be") teaches that truth is relative to viewpoint. - **Ahimsa is taken to an extreme** β€” Jains avoid harming even insects; the most devout may end life by the ritual fast ***sallekhana***. - Jainism **does not deny the gods** but places them **below the Jina**, and it rejects Vedic ritual and the supremacy of the brahmanas. There is **no creator-god**. - Crucially β€” and unlike Buddhism β€” Jainism **did not condemn the varna system**: it explained one's birth-varna as the fruit of past karma, while still holding that **even a low-born person can win liberation** through pure conduct. ## The Spread & the Great Schism Mahavira built an **order (sangha)** open to **both men and women** (~14,000 followers). Because Jainism stayed close to brahmanical society and demanded great austerity, it spread **slowly** and won less royal patronage than Buddhism β€” but it endured where it took root. - **To the south & west.** Tradition holds that **Chandragupta Maurya** became a Jain, abdicated, and died as an ascetic in Karnataka. A **12-year famine in Magadha** sent **Bhadrabahu** and his followers south while **Sthulabhadra** stayed in Magadha. - **The Digambara–Svetambara split.** On the southerners' return, disputes over discipline (above all, nudity) hardened into two sects: the **Digambaras** ("sky-clad", naked β€” the southern group) and the **Svetambaras** ("white-clad" β€” the Magadhans). The **first Jain council at Pataliputra** (c. 300 BCE) tried to fix the canon; the **second, at Valabhi** (c. 512 CE), produced the final Svetambara canon (the **Agamas/Angas**). - **Royal patrons.** In Kalinga (Odisha), the king **Kharavela** (1st c. BCE) championed Jainism; later it took deep root in **Gujarat, Rajasthan and Karnataka**, where the trading community still sustains it. ## Contribution + the Other Heterodox Sects ### Jainism's contribution - It made the **first serious attack** on varna privilege and ritualism. - It enriched **regional languages**: rejecting Sanskrit, the Jains wrote in **Prakrit (Ardhamagadhi)** and made the earliest works in **Apabhramsa**, and contributed enormously to **Kannada**, Gujarati and Tamil literature. - It left great art β€” the **Dilwara temples** (Mount Abu), the colossal **Gomateshwara (Bahubali)** statue at Shravanabelagola, and Ellora's Jain caves (covered in the Art & Culture part). ### The other heterodox sects - **The Ajivikas**, founded by **Makkhali Gosala** (a one-time associate of Mahavira), preached strict **determinism (*niyati*)** β€” that all events are pre-fixed by fate and effort is useless. They later won Mauryan patronage (Ashoka and Dasaratha gave them the Barabar caves). - **The Charvakas (Lokayata)**, linked to **Ajita Kesakambalin**, were thoroughgoing **materialists** who rejected the soul, rebirth and the afterlife, accepting only direct perception. ## Why this matters for UPSC - Prelims loves the **Jainism-vs-Buddhism** contrast (Jainism keeps the gods and varna-as-karma and embraces extreme penance; Buddhism rejects them and takes the middle path) and the **tirthankara / council / sect** facts. - The **causes of the heterodox movements** β€” economic and social, not just religious β€” is a ready Mains argument. ## Further Reading - Standard NCERT-level texts and reference books on ancient, medieval and cultural Indian history (any UPSC reading list). ## Test Yourself: Practice Questions & PYQs Jain questions reward the doctrines and the Jainism-vs-Buddhism contrast. Commit to an answer before revealing each. ## Practice Questions **Q1.** How many vows (mahavratas) did Mahavira prescribe, and which one did he add to the four of Parshvanatha? - (a) Three; he added Ahimsa - (b) Four; he added Satya - (c) Five; he added Brahmacharya (celibacy) - (d) Five; he added Aparigraha **Answer: (c)** β€” Parshvanatha taught four vows; Mahavira added the fifth, Brahmacharya (celibacy) β€” making five: ahimsa, satya, asteya, aparigraha, brahmacharya. **Q2.** In Jainism, Mahavira is regarded as the: - (a) Twenty-third tirthankara - (b) Twenty-fourth (last) tirthankara - (c) Founder of the very first Jain order - (d) First tirthankara **Answer: (b)** β€” Mahavira was the 24th and last tirthankara; the first was Rishabhanatha and the 23rd, Parshvanatha, was his historical predecessor. **Q3.** The 'Three Jewels' (Triratna) of Jainism are right faith, right knowledge and: - (a) Right meditation - (b) Right livelihood - (c) Right speech - (d) Right conduct **Answer: (d)** β€” The Triratna are samyak darshana (right faith), samyak jnana (right knowledge) and samyak charitra (right conduct) β€” note 'right livelihood/speech' belong to the Buddhist Eightfold Path. **Q4.** The Jain doctrine of 'anekantavada' refers to: - (a) Strict determinism by fate - (b) Liberation through ritual sacrifice - (c) The many-sidedness / relativity of truth - (d) The momentariness of all things **Answer: (c)** β€” Anekantavada (with syadvada, 'it may be') holds that reality has many aspects and truth is relative to viewpoint. Determinism is the Ajivika idea; momentariness is Buddhist. **Q5.** The split of Jainism into Digambara and Svetambara sects is traditionally linked to: - (a) The Battle of the Hydaspes - (b) Ashoka's conversion - (c) A 12-year famine in Magadha and the migration under Bhadrabahu - (d) The Kalinga War **Answer: (c)** β€” A 12-year Magadhan famine sent Bhadrabahu's group south while Sthulabhadra's stayed; on their return, disputes over discipline (nudity) crystallised into Digambara (sky-clad) and Svetambara (white-clad). **Q6.** Unlike Buddhism, Jainism: - (a) Advocated the middle path - (b) Rejected the existence of the soul - (c) Did not condemn the varna system, explaining it by karma - (d) Denied rebirth **Answer: (c)** β€” Jainism did not condemn varna (it explained one's birth-varna as the result of past karma), kept the gods below the Jina, and embraced severe penance β€” all contrasts with Buddhism. **Q7.** The Ajivika sect, founded by Makkhali Gosala, is best known for its doctrine of: - (a) Devotional bhakti - (b) Materialism - (c) Non-violence - (d) Strict determinism (niyati / fate) **Answer: (d)** β€” The Ajivikas preached niyati β€” that all events are pre-determined by fate, making human effort futile. They later received the Barabar caves from the Mauryas. **Q8.** Early Jain religious literature was composed in which language? - (a) Classical Sanskrit - (b) Pali - (c) Tamil - (d) Prakrit (Ardhamagadhi) **Answer: (d)** β€” Rejecting Sanskrit, the Jains used Prakrit β€” specifically Ardhamagadhi β€” and contributed to Apabhramsa and Kannada literature. ### UPSC Previous Year Questions (PYQs) *A genuine UPSC Prelims question on the common ground between Jainism and Buddhism. Explanation in our own words.* **Q9.** Which of the following was/were common to both Buddhism and Jainism? (1) Avoidance of the extremities of penance and enjoyment (2) Indifference to the authority of the Vedas (3) Denial of the efficacy of rituals. Select the correct answer: (UPSC Prelims 2019) - (a) 1 and 2 only - (b) 1, 2 and 3 - (c) 2 and 3 only - (d) 1 and 3 only **Answer: (c)** β€” Both rejected Vedic authority (2) and ritual efficacy (3). But avoidance of extreme penance (1) is the BUDDHIST middle path β€” Jainism actually embraces severe penance β€” so 1 is not common. Hence 2 and 3 only. **Q10.** 'Souls are not only the property of animal and plant life, but also of rocks, running water and many other natural objects not considered living by other religious sects.' This statement reflects one of the core beliefs of which of the following? (UPSC Prelims 2023) - (a) Buddhism - (b) Vaishnavism - (c) Shaivism - (d) Jainism **Answer: (d)** β€” This is Jain animism. Jainism holds that jiva β€” soul β€” pervades not only animals and plants but also earth, stone, water, fire and air bodies. It is precisely this belief that makes Jain ahimsa so much more demanding than any other tradition's. **Q11.** With reference to Indian history, consider the following texts: 1. Nettipakarana 2. Parishishtaparvan 3. Avadanashataka 4. Trishashtilakshana Mahapurana. Which of the above are Jaina texts? (UPSC Prelims 2022) - (a) 1, 2 and 3 - (b) 2 and 4 only - (c) 2, 3 and 4 - (d) 1, 3 and 4 **Answer: (b)** β€” Parishishtaparvan, Hemachandra's history of the early Jain teachers, and the Trishashtilakshana Mahapurana on the sixty-three great Jain figures are Jaina works. Nettipakarana and Avadanashataka are BUDDHIST β€” the first a Pali exegetical text, the second a Sanskrit collection of avadana tales. **Q12.** With reference to Indian history, consider the following pairs: 1. Aryadeva β€” Jaina scholar 2. Dignaga β€” Buddhist scholar 3. Nathamuni β€” Vaishnava scholar. How many pairs are correctly matched? (UPSC Prelims 2022) - (a) Only two pairs - (b) Only one pair - (c) None of the pairs - (d) All three pairs **Answer: (a)** β€” Two. Dignaga was indeed a Buddhist logician and Nathamuni a Vaishnava Alvar-tradition scholar. But Aryadeva was a BUDDHIST β€” a disciple of Nagarjuna in the Madhyamaka school β€” not a Jaina, so pair 1 fails. **Q13.** Which of the following statements is/are applicable to Jain doctrine? 1. The surest way of annihilating karma is to practise penance. 2. Every object, even the smallest particle, has a soul. 3. Karma is the bane of the soul and must be ended. (UPSC Prelims 2013) - (a) 1 only - (b) 1, 2 and 3 - (c) 2 and 3 only - (d) 1 and 3 only **Answer: (b)** β€” All three are Jain positions. Karma in Jainism is a subtle material substance that clings to the soul and weighs it down; severe penance burns it away; and every object, however small, possesses a soul. Together these explain why Jain ascetic practice is so austere. **Q14.** The five vows of Jainism are correctly listed as: (UPSC PYQ) - (a) Ahimsa, Satya, Asteya, Aparigraha and Brahmacharya - (b) Ahimsa, Satya, Asteya, Aparigraha and Samyak Darshana - (c) Ahimsa, Satya, Dana, Aparigraha and Brahmacharya - (d) Ahimsa, Tapas, Asteya, Aparigraha and Brahmacharya **Answer: (a)** β€” Non-injury, truthfulness, non-stealing, non-possession and continence. The first four were taught by Parshvanatha; MAHAVIRA added the fifth, brahmacharya. Do not confuse these vows with the Three Jewels β€” right faith, right knowledge and right conduct. ### Mains Practice Questions Use these to frame full-length answers. You don't have to answer one exactly β€” they show the angles UPSC tests, so let them guide which points you cover. - Examine the social and economic causes behind the rise of the heterodox movements in sixth-century-BCE India. - Compare and contrast the core doctrines of Jainism and Buddhism. - Assess Jainism's contribution to Indian languages, literature and art.