Nuclear and Arms-Control Order for UPSC: NPT, CTBT, NSG, MTCR, Wassenaar, Australia Group, TPNW and India's Position
How UPSC Tests the Nuclear Order
🎯 Exam priority: Tier-1 (small but sharp). Four of our 100 questions, but each was a one-fact question that decided marks. UPSC asked: what NSG membership means and what it does not (2018); the IAEA Additional Protocol in the Indian context (2018); the 2018 India-Russia nuclear action plan (2019); the OPCW (2016); and, earlier, IAEA safeguards on Indian reactors (2020, later dropped). In Mains: the US-Iran nuclear pact and India's interest (2018).
This chapter is about three things: the treaties (NPT, CTBT, TPNW), the supplier clubs (NSG, MTCR, Wassenaar, Australia Group), and India's special position outside the NPT but inside three of the four clubs. The 2025-26 news adds two breakdowns: the NPT Review Conference of 2026 and the expiry of New START.
The Treaties: NPT, CTBT, TPNW, BWC, CWC
The treaties are the backbone. Learn the year, the content and India's position.
The treaties
Treaty | Facts | India |
Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), opened 1968, in force 1970 | Three pillars: non-proliferation, disarmament and peaceful use. Recognises five nuclear-weapon states: the US, Russia, the UK, France and China (those that tested before 1 January 1967). Extended indefinitely in 1995; reviewed every five years. North Korea announced withdrawal in 2003 | Has never signed: calls it discriminatory. India, Pakistan and Israel are outside it |
Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT), 1996 | Bans all nuclear explosions; not in force because 44 listed states must ratify and some have not (the US, China, Israel, Iran and Egypt signed but did not ratify; India, Pakistan and North Korea did not sign). Russia withdrew its ratification in 2023 | Has not signed; observes a voluntary moratorium on testing since 1998 |
Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons (TPNW), 2017 | In force since January 2021; no nuclear-armed state or NATO member has joined | Not a party |
Biological Weapons Convention (1972, in force 1975) | Bans development and stockpiling of biological weapons; has no verification body. Its 50th anniversary was marked in 2025 | Party; hosted an international conference in New Delhi on 1-2 December 2025 attended by over 80 countries |
Chemical Weapons Convention (1993, in force 1997) | Implemented by the OPCW (The Hague), which won the 2013 Nobel Peace Prize; it monitors the chemical industry and gives states parties assistance and protection (2016 PYQ) | Party; destroyed its declared stockpile |
Anti-Personnel Mine Ban Convention (Ottawa) | - | Not a party; attended the 2025 meeting as an observer |
UNSC Resolution 1540 (2004) | Binds all states to stop non-state actors acquiring weapons of mass destruction | India supports it and ran the first capacity-building programme on 1540 and strategic trade controls for eight Asia-Pacific states in February 2025; India's WMD Act 2005 implements it |
The Export-Control Clubs: NSG, MTCR, Wassenaar, Australia Group
The clubs control exports of materials, technology and missiles. India belongs to three of the four.
The four export-control regimes
Regime | Purpose and facts | India |
Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG), formed 1974-75 | Controls nuclear and dual-use exports; created after India's 1974 test; decides by consensus; membership does NOT require NPT membership and does NOT make a country an NPT party (2018 PYQ); gives members access to technology | Not a member. A one-time waiver in 2008 allowed nuclear trade; its application for membership (2016) is blocked by China |
Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR), 1987 | Voluntary control of missiles and drones that can carry weapons of mass destruction | Joined in 2016 |
Wassenaar Arrangement, 1996 | Conventional arms and dual-use goods and technologies; HQ Vienna | Joined in December 2017 |
Australia Group, 1985 | Chemical and biological precursors and equipment; the 40th anniversary plenary was held in Sydney in July 2025 | Joined in January 2018 |
SCOMET is India's list of controlled Special Chemicals, Organisms, Materials, Equipment and Technologies; the MEA keeps it in line with the regimes and enforces it through the WMD Act, 2005.
India subscribes to the Hague Code of Conduct against Ballistic Missile Proliferation (2016).
India's Nuclear Position
India sits outside the NPT but has built a rule-based place for itself. The facts below were asked directly.
India's nuclear position
Tests: 1974 ('peaceful nuclear explosion'); five tests on 11 and 13 May 1998 (Pokhran-II, Operation Shakti). The 2003 doctrine: credible minimum deterrence, no first use, and massive retaliation if attacked.
The civil nuclear opening: the 2005 India-US declaration, the 2008 India-specific safeguards agreement with the IAEA, the NSG waiver (September 2008) and the 123 Agreement with the US. The IAEA Additional Protocol (signed 2009, in force 2014) applies only to civilian installations; UPSC's key reads it as 'civilian reactors come under IAEA safeguards' (2018).
Russia: the 2018 'Action Plan for Prioritisation and Implementation of Cooperation Areas in the Nuclear Field' (Kudankulam units and third-country projects) was a PYQ (2019).
'No nuclear blackmail': the MEA Annual Report 2025 sets out India's 'new normal' after Operation Sindoor: a fitting reply to terror, no tolerance of nuclear blackmail, and no distinction between sponsors and perpetrators.
UN First Committee 2025: India's four annual resolutions were adopted (terrorists and WMD; science and technology in international security; a convention on the use of nuclear weapons; reducing nuclear danger); 63 resolutions were adopted in all.
The 2025-26 Breakdowns: New START and the NPT RevCon
Two arms-control pillars broke down in 2026, and the Iran war reopened the nuclear debate.
2025-26 breakdowns (secondary sources)
New START (the US-Russia strategic arms treaty of 2010) expired on 5 February 2026 with no replacement; Russia said it would keep to the limits as long as the US does, and the US declined a one-year voluntary extension. Inspections had been suspended since 2020.
NPT Review Conference: the 2026 meeting (New York, ended 22 May) closed without a final document for the third time in a row (2015, 2022, 2026); disagreements over disarmament and language on Iran were central.
Iran: the 2015 nuclear deal (JCPOA) collapsed after the US exit in 2018; the 2025 and 2026 wars (see the West Asia article) put Iran's enrichment and the IAEA's access at the centre of the dispute.
Emerging technology: India took part in the CCW expert group on lethal autonomous weapons (March and September 2025) and in REAIM consultations on AI in the military.
Further Reading
the Ministry of External Affairs Annual Report, MEA and PIB press releases and joint statements, United Nations and treaty-body websites, and an atlas — the primary sources behind every fact above.
How UPSC Could Ask This Next
Here are the questions this chapter is most likely to produce next.
How UPSC could ask this next
Club status: 'India is a member of the MTCR, Wassenaar and the Australia Group but not the NSG' (statement questions).
Treaty identification: which treaty bans all nuclear explosions (CTBT), which has a verification body (CWC through the OPCW; the BWC has none), which came into force in 2021 (TPNW).
Current affairs: New START's expiry, the 2026 NPT RevCon, Russia's de-ratification of the CTBT, the IAEA's role in Iran.
India and the NSG: what the 2008 waiver did and why membership is blocked.
Mains: the US-Iran nuclear question and India's interest (2018), India's no-first-use doctrine and 'nuclear blackmail', export controls and the case for NSG membership.
Test Yourself: Practice Questions and PYQs
Twelve practice questions on the treaties, supplier clubs and India's position, followed by the real UPSC Prelims questions and exact Mains questions.
Practice Questions
Q1. Which one of the following is NOT recognised as a nuclear-weapon state under the Non-Proliferation Treaty?
(a) India
(b) France
(c) China
(d) United Kingdom
Show answer
Answer: (a) — The NPT recognises states that tested before 1 January 1967: the US, Russia, the UK, France and China.
Q2. Consider the following statements about the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT):
1. It is in force.
2. India has not signed it.
3. Russia withdrew its ratification in 2023.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) 1, 2 and 3
(b) 1 and 3 only
(c) 2 and 3 only
(d) 1 and 2 only
Show answer
Answer: (c) — It has never entered into force because the 44 listed states have not all ratified it.
Q3. The Nuclear Suppliers Group was formed in response to
(a) China's nuclear test of 1964
(b) the Cuban missile crisis
(c) North Korea's withdrawal from the NPT
(d) India's nuclear test of 1974
Show answer
Answer: (d) — India is not a member; China blocks its entry.
Q4. India is a member of which of the following export-control regimes?
1. Missile Technology Control Regime
2. Wassenaar Arrangement
3. Australia Group
4. Nuclear Suppliers Group
(a) 1, 3 and 4 only
(b) 1, 2 and 3 only
(c) 1, 2, 3 and 4
(d) 2, 3 and 4 only
Show answer
Answer: (b) — India joined the MTCR in 2016, Wassenaar in 2017 and the Australia Group in 2018.
Q5. The Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons (TPNW) entered into force in
(a) January 2021
(b) February 2026
(c) September 2017
(d) March 1970
Show answer
Answer: (a) — It was adopted in 2017. No nuclear-armed state has joined.
Q6. Which of the following conventions has no international verification body?
(a) Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty
(b) Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (IAEA safeguards)
(c) Chemical Weapons Convention
(d) Biological Weapons Convention
Show answer
Answer: (d) — The CWC has the OPCW and the CTBT a preparatory commission with a monitoring system; the BWC lacks a verification agency.
Q7. The Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons has its headquarters at
(a) The Hague
(b) Vienna
(c) Geneva
(d) New York
Show answer
Answer: (a) — It won the Nobel Peace Prize in 2013.
Q8. The 2026 Review Conference of the NPT, which ended on 22 May 2026,
(a) adopted a binding timetable for disarmament
(b) revised Article VI
(c) admitted India as a nuclear-weapon state
(d) failed to adopt a final document
Show answer
Answer: (d) — It was the third consecutive conference without a consensus document (secondary sources).
Q9. New START, the US-Russia strategic arms treaty, expired on
(a) 5 February 2011
(b) 5 February 2026
(c) 31 December 2025
(d) 8 December 1987
Show answer
Answer: (b) — No replacement has been agreed; both sides said they would observe limits only if the other does.
Q10. India's SCOMET list refers to
(a) India's list of controlled dual-use items, including nuclear, chemical and biological materials and technologies
(b) its list of missile-test ranges
(c) its list of nuclear reactors under IAEA safeguards
(d) its list of countries in the Nuclear Suppliers Group
Show answer
Answer: (a) — It is aligned with the MTCR, Wassenaar, the Australia Group and the NSG lists and implemented under the WMD Act, 2005.
Q11. Which UN Security Council resolution requires all states to prevent non-state actors from acquiring weapons of mass destruction?
(a) Resolution 1267
(b) Resolution 1540 (2004)
(c) Resolution 242
(d) Resolution 2803
Show answer
Answer: (b) — India supports it through the WMD Act, 2005 and capacity-building courses.
Q12. India's nuclear doctrine of 2003 includes
(a) credible minimum deterrence and no first use
(b) first use if attacked conventionally
(c) joint command with allies
(d) no retaliation against non-nuclear states in any case
Show answer
Answer: (a) — India also states it will retaliate massively if attacked with nuclear weapons.
UPSC Previous Year Questions (PYQs)
Real UPSC Prelims questions, checked against the official paper and answer key.
Q1. (2018) What is/are the consequence/consequences of a country becoming the member of the 'Nuclear Suppliers Group'?
1. It will have access to the latest and most efficient nuclear technologies.
2. It automatically becomes a member of 'The Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT)'.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) Neither 1 nor 2
(b) Both 1 and 2
(c) 1 only
(d) 2 only
Show answer
Answer: (c) — NSG members gain access to nuclear technology, but NSG membership does not make a country an NPT party: the NSG is a voluntary export-control group (France was an NSG founder in 1975 and acceded to the NPT only in 1992).
Q2. (2018) In the Indian context, what is the implication of ratifying the 'Additional Protocol' with the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)?
(a) The military nuclear installations come under the inspection of IAEA.
(b) The country will have the privilege to buy uranium from the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG).
(c) The civilian nuclear reactors come under IAEA safeguards.
(d) The country automatically becomes a member of the NSG.
Show answer
Answer: (c) — India's Additional Protocol (signed 2009, in force 2014) is India-specific: it covers only civilian nuclear installations and leaves military ones outside IAEA inspection. UPSC's key reads this as 'the civilian nuclear reactors come under IAEA safeguards'.
Q3. (2019) Recently, India signed a deal known as 'Action Plan for Prioritization and Implementation of Cooperation Areas in the Nuclear Field' with which of the following countries?
(a) The United Kingdom
(b) The United States of America
(c) Japan
(d) Russia
Show answer
Answer: (d) — India and Russia signed this nuclear-cooperation action plan during President Putin's October 2018 visit; the other three countries listed are not the partner.
Q4. (2016) With reference to the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW), consider the following statements:
1. It is an organization of the European Union (EU) in working relation with NATO and WHO.
2. It monitors chemical industry to prevent new weapons from emerging.
3. It provides assistance and protection to States Parties against chemical weapons threats.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 and 3 only
(b) 1, 2 and 3
(c) 2 and 3 only
(d) 1 only
Show answer
Answer: (c) — The OPCW is an independent body implementing the Chemical Weapons Convention; it verifies industry and destruction and gives assistance and protection to states parties.
Mains Practice Questions
Use these to frame full-length answers. You don't have to answer one exactly — they show the angles UPSC tests, so let them guide which points you cover.
In what ways would the US-Iran nuclear pact controversy affect the national interest of India? How should India respond to this situation?
Examine India's case for membership of the Nuclear Suppliers Group and the obstacles to it.
What do the expiry of New START and the failure of the 2026 NPT Review Conference mean for the global non-proliferation order and for India?
Evaluate India's doctrine of credible minimum deterrence and 'no nuclear blackmail' after Operation Sindoor.
UPSC Mains — Previous Years’ Questions on this topic (last 10 years)
These are the actual GS Mains questions UPSC has asked on this theme — real proof of how, and when, it is tested. Try to write a full answer to each.
2018 (GS-II): In what ways would the ongoing US-Iran Nuclear Pact Controversy affect the national interest of India? How should India respond to this situation?