The Delhi Sultanate II: Tughlaqs, Sayyids and Lodis — Muhammad bin Tughlaq's Experiments, Administration, Economy and Decline

Start Here — The Sultanate at Its Largest and at Its End

🎯 Exam priority: Steady (T2). UPSC 2019 combined three Sultanate statements — the Amil, the Iqta and the Mir Bakshi — and 2022 asked what 'Kulah-Daran' means. Mains has asked how Persian sources show the spirit of the age (2020).

The Tughlaq dynasty held the largest territory of any Sultanate ruler yet began the unravelling: provinces broke away to found Vijayanagara and the Bahmani state, Timur sacked Delhi in 1398, and the Sayyids and Lodis ruled a shrinking realm until Babur's victory at Panipat in 1526. This article follows the rulers in sequence, then lifts the lid on how the Sultanate worked — administration, economy, society, culture — and why it declined.

Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq and Muhammad bin Tughlaq

• Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq (1320–25): an able general who defended the frontier against the Mongols; built Tughlaqabad; encouraged cultivation, reformed the post by replacing messengers with horses and dak-chowkies; his son Jauna Khan (Ulugh Khan) conquered Warangal (1323), ending the Kakatiya kingdom; died when a pavilion collapsed at Afghanpur.

• Muhammad bin Tughlaq (1325–51): a scholar of Persian, Arabic, logic, mathematics and medicine, tolerant of other faiths (he met Jain and Hindu ascetics), a bold if impatient innovator. Barani and Ibn Battuta describe him. He sought recognition from the Abbasid Caliph in Cairo in 1340–41 and put the Caliph's name on coins and the khutba.

The 'experiments'

Evaluation for Mains. Ideas such as a central capital, a token currency in an age of silver shortage (the world was short of silver, as in China, where paper money had been issued) and state support for agriculture were visionary; the failure lay in execution — haste, poor planning, administrative weakness and bad timing (famine) — and in the Sultan's impatience with the nobility and ulema. Barani, hostile to his low-born appointees, called him a victim of 'mingled opposites'. Contemporary commentators also noted his many rebellions: there were more than twenty during his reign, including those of Madurai, Bengal and the Deccan.

• Rebellions bore fruit: Vijayanagara (1336) and the Bahmani kingdom (1347) became lasting rivals; Madurai and Bengal went their own way.

• He died of illness near Thatta in 1351 while chasing the rebel Taghi. The historian Badauni wrote: 'the king was freed from his people and they from their king'.

• Ibn Battuta (Moroccan traveller, in India 1333–47) was qazi at Delhi, sent by the Sultan as envoy to China in 1342; his Rihla describes the dak system (horse posts, ulaq, and foot posts, dawa), the city's busy markets, the use of betel (paan), slavery, sati and the Sultan's court.

Firoz Shah Tughlaq and the Fall of the Dynasty

• Firoz Shah (1351–88) chose peace over conquest and win the nobility and clergy: he made iqtas and offices hereditary, abolished 24 non-sharia taxes and the harsh punishments, reduced the revenue demand, and imposed jizya on brahmanas, which had been exempt. His strong religious orthodoxy produced the destruction of some temples and persecution of heterodox groups. But he was also a builder-ruler.

• Public works. About 50 canals and dams, notably the Yamuna–Hissar canal and a Sutlej–Ghaggar link, financed by the new irrigation tax haq-i-sharb; the British later called him the 'father of the irrigation department'. He founded new towns — Firozabad (Delhi), Fatehabad, Hissar-Firoza, Jaunpur — built saraiyas, gardens, a hospital (dar-ul-shifa) and brought Ashokan pillars (from Topra and Meerut) to Delhi.

• Welfare and slavery. The department of charity (Diwan-i-Khairat) helped orphans, widows and poor Muslims, including funds for daughters' marriages; the department of slaves (Diwan-i-Bandagan) managed more than a lakh of slaves, a large part of whom were used in the army and karkhanas — a source of political danger later.

• Culture. He had Sanskrit works on medicine and astronomy translated into Persian from the library at Nagarkot (Jwalamukhi) and wrote his own memoir, the Futuhat-i-Firoz Shahi.

• After his death, struggles of succession between his heirs and the powerful slave-nobles weakened Delhi. In 1398 Timur invaded: he massacred the population at Delhi and carried away plunder and artisans, left Khizr Khan in Multan as governor, and the Tughlaq kingdom shrank to a district around Delhi under Nasir-ud-din Mahmud.

Sayyids and Lodis

• Sayyid dynasty (1414–51): founded by Khizr Khan, Timur's governor of Multan, who took Delhi in 1414 and ruled as a vassal of the Timurids; successors Mubarak Shah (the Tarikh-i-Mubarak Shahi by Yahya Sirhindi was named for him), Muhammad Shah and Alam Shah, who abdicated for Bahlul Lodi. The Sayyids claimed descent from the Prophet; as a group, 'Sayyids' were called Kulah-Daran ('cap-wearers') for the pointed cap that marked them among the theologians, who were called turban-wearers (dastar-bandan) — the 2022 PYQ.

• Lodi dynasty (1451–1526): the first Afghan dynasty. Bahlul Lodi (1451–89) annexed Jaunpur, relying on a tribal confederacy of Afghan chiefs. Sikandar Lodi (1489–1517), the ablest, founded Agra (1504) and made it his base, introduced the gaz-i-Sikandari measure for land, ended some duties on grain, promoted agriculture, was a patron of learning (Persian medical works, writing poetry as 'Gulrukhi') but persecuted Hindus in places. Ibrahim Lodi (1517–26) quarrelled with his Afghan nobles; Daulat Khan Lodi (governor of Punjab) and Alam Khan invited Babur, who defeated Ibrahim at Panipat (1526) — the end of the Delhi Sultanate and start of the Mughal empire. Rana Sanga of Mewar was also in touch with Babur.

How the Sultanate Was Governed

Central government

• The 2019 PYQ's 'Mir Bakshi' office belongs to the Mughal state (it was a key post under Akbar), not the Khaljis.

Provincial and local government

• Iqta (province) under a muqti or wali; shiq (district) under a shiqdar; pargana (cluster of villages) under an amil who collected the revenue (the 2019 PYQ's statement 1 — correct); village under a muqaddam or chaudhri, with the patwari as accountant.

• The iqta system. Originating in West Asia and made systematic by Iltutmish, it assigned the right to collect revenue of a territory to a noble (muqti) in return for maintaining soldiers. It was neither ancient nor Indian (the 2019 statement 2 — incorrect): the muqti was transferable, and Balban's surplus-return (fawazil) and audit by khwajas kept him accountable; Firoz Shah made it hereditary, Sikandar Lodi stopped the fawazil. It was replaced by the Mughal jagir system.

• Army. The Sultan's own cavalry (hasham-i-qalb), the iqtadars' contingents and levies; Alauddin's dagh and chehra system; Firoz's tendency to hereditary and old-age service weakened it.

• Justice. The Sultan as the highest court; the qazi and the muhtasib (public morals and market) enforced sharia; the sultan's own regulations (zawabit) filled gaps; Hindus mostly settled disputes in panchayats.

Revenue

Economy and Society

• Agriculture: wheat, rice, millets, sugarcane, cotton and oilseeds; the Persian wheel and canals (Firoz) expanded irrigation; the village remained the unit, ruled by local headmen.

• Cities and crafts: Delhi, Lahore, Multan, Lakhnauti (Bengal), Cambay, Daulatabad and Jaunpur were large; the spinning wheel and the pedal-loom spread; the karkhanas (royal workshops) produced silks, armour and luxury goods; paper, glass and metalware were made; gold and silver brocades and fine cotton (Bengal muslin) were exported.

• Trade: overland routes with Central Asia (Multan–Kabul), Gujarat ports (Cambay), the Coromandel and Bengal; merchants included Multanis, Marwaris, Banjaras and Arabs. Hundi (bill of exchange) and credit expanded. The currency: gold dinar, silver tanka, copper jital, billon adha and bikh under Firoz.

• Society: a Muslim ruling class in layers (foreign Turks, Persians, Afghans, Indian converts) over a largely Hindu peasantry; urban slavery and a large population of artisans; Hindu zamindars and merchants remained important; Sufi khanqahs offered an alternative to caste (see the Bhakti-Sufi article).

Culture, Regional Sultanates and Architecture

• Tughlaq architecture is austere and strong: sloping 'battered' walls, grey stone, little ornament, as at Tughlaqabad, the tomb of Ghiyas-ud-din, Adilabad, Jahanpanah, Firozabad (Kotla Firoz Shah) with an Ashokan pillar on its roof, and Firoz's madrasa and tomb at Hauz Khas. Sayyid and Lodi tombs are octagonal; the Lodis introduced the double dome (Sikandar Lodi's tomb) and garden tombs (Lodi Gardens, Bara Gumbad).

• Provincial styles. Jaunpur (Sharqi): the Atala Masjid (1408) with a propylon-like gateway and no minars; Malwa (Mandu): Hoshang Shah's marble tomb, the Jahaz Mahal and Hindola Mahal; Bengal: the Adina Masjid at Pandua with terracotta and brick, curved bangla roofs; Gujarat: Ahmedabad's Jami Masjid with trabeate-arcuate fusion and carved jali work; Bahmani Deccan: Gulbarga's Jama Masjid and Bidar's madrasa; Kashmir: wooden mosques and the reign of Zain-ul-Abidin ('Budshah'), who patronised translation of Sanskrit works into Persian.

• Literature and music: Persian prose, poetry and history (Barani, Afif, Yahya Sirhindi); Khusrau's Hindavi; regional languages — Bengali (Krittivasa's Ramayana), Hindi and Awadhi (Kabir, later Jayasi's Padmavat), Marathi (Jnaneshwar) — and the beginnings of Urdu. Sultan Husain Sharqi of Jaunpur is associated with the khayal and Raja Man Singh Tomar of Gwalior with dhrupad.

• Mains 2020 asked: Persian literary sources of medieval India reflect the spirit of the age. Comment. A good answer shows what the chronicles say about statecraft (Barani), culture (Khusrau), religion (Sufi malfuzat) and their bias as court literature.

Why the Sultanate Declined

• No settled law of succession and strong nobility; slave and Afghan faction fighting.

• Over-extension and rebellion under Muhammad bin Tughlaq; the loss of the south and Bengal; regional kingdoms (Bahmani, Vijayanagara, Jaunpur, Malwa, Gujarat, Bengal, Kashmir).

• Policies that weakened the state: Firoz's hereditary iqtas and army, his reliance on slaves, and a shrinking revenue base.

• Timur's invasion (1398) shattered the treasury and the prestige of Delhi, and the Sayyid–Lodi rulers governed a small kingdom with a tribal-confederacy style of politics.

• Military obsolescence: the Sultanate cavalry-based armies were no match for Babur's gunpowder artillery and tactics at Panipat (1526).

How UPSC Has Asked It — And What Could Come Next

• Seen: a three-statement institutions question (Amil, Iqta, Mir Bakshi — 2019); a group name (Kulah-Daran — 2022).

• Likely next: Muhammad bin Tughlaq's experiments (year and details); Firoz's departments (Khairat, Bandagan) and irrigation taxes; Ibn Battuta's account (dak, qazi, China embassy); Timur 1398; Sikandar Lodi (Agra, gaz-i-Sikandari); Sultanate officers and taxes (Amil, Muqti, Ariz, Sadr, Barid, jizya, zakat, kharaj, khams); provincial architecture (Atala Masjid, Adina Masjid, Hindola Mahal); the Sultanate and Sufism.

• Traps: Mir Bakshi is Mughal; the iqta system was not an indigenous institution; the token currency was brass/copper not paper; Timur invaded under Nasir-ud-din Mahmud, not Muhammad bin Tughlaq; Firoz brought Ashokan pillars to Delhi, but could not read them.

Further Reading

• Standard NCERT-level texts and reference books on ancient, medieval and cultural Indian history (any UPSC reading list).

Test Yourself: Practice Questions & PYQs

Place each ruler's measure on a timeline, and each administrative term at its level (centre, iqta, pargana, village).

Practice Questions

Q1. Muhammad bin Tughlaq's token currency scheme failed mainly because:

• (a) The tokens were made of gold

• (b) Foreign traders refused all coins

• (c) Forgery was easy as minting was not a state monopoly

• (d) The Sultan banned all silver coins

Q2. The Moroccan traveller who served as qazi in Delhi under Muhammad bin Tughlaq was:

• (a) Al-Biruni

• (b) Ibn Battuta

• (c) Marco Polo

• (d) Hiuen Tsang

Q3. Which Sultan is known as the 'father of the irrigation department' and levied the haq-i-sharb?

• (a) Muhammad bin Tughlaq

• (b) Firoz Shah Tughlaq

• (c) Sikandar Lodi

• (d) Alauddin Khalji

Q4. Timur invaded India in 1398 during the reign of:

• (a) Khizr Khan

• (b) Firoz Shah

• (c) Nasir-ud-din Mahmud

• (d) Muhammad bin Tughlaq

Q5. Sikandar Lodi is known for:

• (a) Founding Agra and introducing the gaz-i-Sikandari

• (b) Starting the Chahalgani

• (c) Building Tughlaqabad

• (d) Introducing token currency

Q6. The Diwan-i-Khairat was a department of Firoz Shah to:

• (a) Help orphans, widows and the poor

• (b) Run the royal karkhanas

• (c) Collect jizya

• (d) Recruit slaves

Q7. In the Sultanate provincial administration, the head of a pargana who collected revenue was the:

• (a) Shiqdar

• (b) Muqti

• (c) Patwari

• (d) Amil

Q8. Which of these is a provincial monument of the Sharqi (Jaunpur) style?

• (a) Atala Masjid

• (b) Hindola Mahal

• (c) Gol Gumbaz

• (d) Adina Masjid

Q9. The Vijayanagara and Bahmani kingdoms were founded during the reign of:

• (a) Firoz Shah

• (b) Sikandar Lodi

• (c) Alauddin Khalji

• (d) Muhammad bin Tughlaq

Q10. The First Battle of Panipat (1526) ended the:

• (a) Lodi dynasty and the Delhi Sultanate

• (b) Mamluk dynasty

• (c) Khalji dynasty

• (d) Tughlaq dynasty

UPSC Previous Year Questions (PYQs)

Real UPSC Prelims questions on the Sultanate (2019 and 2022), answers matched to UPSC's official key. Explanations in our own words.

Q11. (UPSC Prelims 2019) Consider the following statements: 1. In the revenue administration of Delhi Sultanate, the in-charge of revenue collection was known as 'Amil'. 2. The Iqta system of Sultans of Delhi was an ancient indigenous institution. 3. The office of Mir Bakshi came into existence during the reign of Khalji Sultans of Delhi. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

• (a) 1 only

• (b) 1, 2 and 3

• (c) 3 only

• (d) 1 and 2 only

Q12. (UPSC Prelims 2022) With reference to Indian history, who of the following were known as "Kulah-Daran"?

• (a) Qalandars

• (b) Persian calligraphists

• (c) Arab merchants

• (d) Sayyids

Mains Practice Questions

Use these to frame full-length answers. You don't have to answer one exactly — they show the angles UPSC tests, so let them guide which points you cover.

• Muhammad bin Tughlaq has been called a 'mixture of opposites'. Evaluate his schemes and their failure.

• Assess Firoz Shah Tughlaq's contributions and policies.

• Examine the structure of the Delhi Sultanate's administration, with special reference to the iqta system.

• Account for the decline of the Delhi Sultanate.

• Persian literary sources reflect the spirit of the age. Comment with examples from the Sultanate period.

Mains PYQs — Last 10 Years (UPSC GS-I)

The exact questions UPSC has actually asked on this topic over the last decade. Practise writing full-length answers to these.

• Persian literary sources of medieval India reflect the spirit of the age. Comment. (UPSC GS-I, 2020)