# UNFCCC to Paris and Belém for UPSC: COPs, Kyoto, NDCs, Article 6, Climate Finance and the 2023-26 Outcomes Source: https://tracknation.in/story/unfccc-to-paris-and-bel-m-for-upsc-cops-kyoto-ndcs-article-6-climate-finance-and-the-2023-26-outcomes (TrackNation — free UPSC notes with PYQs) > The climate regime for UPSC: UNFCCC and CBDR, the Kyoto Protocol and its flexibility mechanisms, the road to Paris (Cancun, Warsaw, Lima), the Paris Agreement and Article 6, climate finance (GCF, GEF, Adaptation Fund, Loss and Damage) and the outcomes of COP26 to COP31 including Baku's $300 billion goal and the COP30 Global Mutirão. Includes practice questions, PYQs and Mains. ## How UPSC Tests the Climate Regime 🎯 **Exam priority: Tier-1 (climate change and conventions are about one question in six).** *The papers asked: what Intended Nationally Determined Contributions are (2016); which body launched 'Momentum for Change: Climate Neutral Now' (the UNFCCC Secretariat, 2018); what the Common Carbon Metric measures (building operations, 2021); what the Climate Action Tracker is (a database created by research organisations, 2022); the Climate Group's EP100 (2022); whether carbon markets are a widespread tool (2023); the COP28 Declaration on Climate and Health (2025); and Article 6 of the Paris Agreement (2025). Mains asked the outcomes of COP26 and India's commitments (2021) and India's climate commitments under Paris and the updated NDC (2025).* Learn the regime in four steps: **the framework convention** (UNFCCC, 1992), **the binding phase** (Kyoto), **the bottom-up phase** (Paris and the NDCs), and **the implementation phase** (the COPs since 2021). Each COP resolves one unresolved question from the one before it. ## UNFCCC, CBDR, Kyoto and the Road to Paris ## The framework: UNFCCC and the principle of differentiation The **UN Framework Convention on Climate Change** was one of three conventions to come out of the 1992 Rio Earth Summit (with the CBD and the UNCCD). It rests on **Common But Differentiated Responsibilities** (CBDR; in Paris, 'and respective capabilities'): all countries must act, but developed countries carry the historic responsibility. The **Conference of the Parties (COP)** is the highest decision-making body; the first was in Berlin in 1995. | **Group** | **Who** | **Obligation** | | Annex I | Developed countries and economies in transition | Pledged to return emissions to 1990 levels; binding targets under Kyoto | | Annex II | A sub-group of Annex I | Must provide finance and technology to developing countries for mitigation and adaptation | | Non-Annex I | Developing countries, including India, China and Brazil | No binding reduction targets, though encouraged to act | | Least developed countries | Countries with the lowest adaptive capacity | Special status and support | ## Kyoto Protocol (COP3, 1997): binding, top-down - **Binding targets for Annex I countries only**: an overall cut to 5.2 per cent below 1990 levels in the commitment period 2008-12; based on CBDR. - **Flexibility mechanisms:** *emissions trading* (cap and trade between Annex I countries), *Joint Implementation* (projects between two Annex I countries) and the *Clean Development Mechanism* (projects in developing countries earning certified emission reductions, with a 2 per cent levy for the Adaptation Fund). - **Weaknesses:** the United States never ratified and Canada withdrew after 2012; the largest developing-country emitters had no targets. - **Doha Amendment (COP18, 2012):** a second commitment period 2013-20 with a cut of at least 18 per cent below 1990 levels; India ratified it in 2017. ## The road to Paris | **COP** | **What it added** | | Bali (COP13, 2007) | Bali Roadmap; Adaptation Fund launched; REDD (later REDD+) endorsed | | Copenhagen (COP15, 2009) | Copenhagen Accord: voluntary pledges, a 2 °C goal, the idea of the Green Climate Fund | | Cancun (COP16, 2010) | Green Climate Fund adopted; $100 billion a year by 2020 from developed countries | | Durban (COP17, 2011) | Durban Platform: negotiations for a post-2020 agreement covering all countries | | Warsaw (COP19, 2013) | INDCs proposed (a bottom-up approach); international mechanism for Loss and Damage | | Lima (COP20, 2014) | Countries asked to submit INDCs before Paris | ## The Paris Agreement, NDCs and Article 6 ## The Paris Agreement (COP21, 2015) - **Goal:** hold warming well below 2 °C and pursue efforts to limit it to 1.5 °C; reach a balance between sources and sinks of greenhouse gases in the second half of the century. - **NDCs:** every country submits its own Nationally Determined Contribution, a bottom-up pledge (the INDCs of 2015 became NDCs on ratification), with a **five-year cycle** and a **Global Stocktake** every five years (the first concluded at COP28 in 2023). - **Entry into force:** 55 parties covering at least 55 per cent of emissions; it covers developed and developing countries alike. - **Other pillars:** adaptation, transparency, finance, the Warsaw mechanism on loss and damage, and **Article 6** on cooperative approaches (below). | **** | **Kyoto Protocol** | **Paris Agreement** | | Targets | Binding, for developed countries only | Nationally determined, for all countries | | Approach | Top-down | Bottom-up, with review | | Review | Little scope for review | Five-year NDC cycle and stocktake | | Legal force | Legally binding emission cuts | Largely voluntary targets, binding procedural duties such as reporting | Launched at COP21 too: the **International Solar Alliance** (headquartered in Gurugram), whose legal status came in 2017. ### Article 6: carbon markets and cooperation Article 6.2 lets countries trade mitigation outcomes bilaterally; 6.4 creates a UN-supervised crediting mechanism; 6.8 covers non-market approaches. The 2025 question rewarded this reading: Article 6 sets out carbon-market principles *and* non-market strategies. Final rules for 6.2 and 6.4 were adopted at COP29. India signed a bilateral Article 6.2 arrangement with Japan in August 2025. ## Climate Finance, Funds and the COPs Since 2021 ## Finance, funds and institutions - **Green Climate Fund (GCF):** set up at Cancun, hosted at Songdo (Incheon, Republic of Korea); it finances mitigation and adaptation in developing countries and works through accredited entities (NABARD is India's). - **Global Environment Facility (GEF):** created on the eve of the 1992 Rio Summit; the financial mechanism for the CBD, UNFCCC, the Stockholm Convention, the UNCCD and the Minamata Convention. - **Adaptation Fund:** financed partly by the 2 per cent levy on CDM credits. - **Loss and Damage:** compensation for unavoidable impacts; proposed at Warsaw (2013); a dedicated fund was agreed on the opening day of COP28. ## The COPs since 2021: one line each | **COP** | **Key result (secondary sources flagged)** | | COP26 Glasgow (2021) | Glasgow Climate Pact; India announced the 'Panchamrit': 500 GW non-fossil capacity, 50 per cent renewable energy, 1 billion tonnes of emission reduction by 2030, a 45 per cent cut in emissions intensity, and net zero by 2070 | | COP28 Dubai (30 Nov-13 Dec 2023) | First Global Stocktake; the 'UAE Consensus' called for transitioning away from fossil fuels in energy systems and tripling renewable capacity and doubling the rate of energy-efficiency improvement by 2030; loss and damage fund agreed on day one | | COP29 Baku (2024) | New climate-finance goal: developed countries to take the lead in mobilising at least $300 billion a year by 2035, within a call for $1.3 trillion a year from all sources; final Article 6.2 and 6.4 rules; India called the outcome 'extremely disappointing' | | COP30 Belém (10-21 November 2025) | The 'Global Mutirão' decision: a call to triple adaptation finance by 2035, adaptation indicators and a just transition mechanism; no consensus on a fossil-fuel phase-out roadmap in the formal text. India played a 'bridge-building role' for developing countries | | COP31 Antalya (9-20 November 2026) | Scheduled in Antalya, Türkiye (presidency) with Australia leading negotiations | *The COP28-31 rows come from secondary summaries (the UNFCCC decision texts are the primary source), so check the exact wording before quoting.* ## How UPSC Could Ask This Next - **Chronology:** which COP introduced INDCs, which set up the GCF, which adopted the Global Stocktake; and 'in which year did X happen' in statement form. - **Provisions:** Annex I versus non-Annex I, Kyoto's binding nature, Paris's five-year cycle, Article 6. - **Initiatives with odd names:** Climate Neutral Now, EP100, RE100, Climate Action Tracker, Common Carbon Metric: know the sponsor of each. - **Statement-reasoning:** carbon markets as tools, finance goals, the non-binding COP28 health declaration. ## Further Reading - NCERT Biology (Class 12) and Geography textbooks, the India State of Forest Report, the MoEFCC Annual Report, the Economic Survey and the official lists cited in this note — the primary sources behind every figure above. ## Test Yourself: Practice Questions and PYQs Twelve practice questions on the UNFCCC, Kyoto, Paris, Article 6, climate finance and the recent COPs, followed by the real UPSC Prelims questions and exact Mains questions. ## Practice Questions **Q1.** Consider the following statements about the Kyoto Protocol: 1. It set binding emission-reduction targets for developed (Annex I) countries only. 2. It was adopted at COP3 in 1997. 3. The Clean Development Mechanism lets Annex I countries earn credits from projects in developing countries. Which of the statements given above are correct? - (a) 1 and 3 only - (b) 1, 2 and 3 - (c) 2 and 3 only - (d) 1 and 2 only **Answer: (b)** — All three are correct. **Q2.** Which one of the following is correct regarding the Paris Agreement and the Kyoto Protocol? - (a) Both have binding targets for developing countries - (b) Paris has nationally determined targets for all countries and a five-year review, while Kyoto set binding targets for developed countries only - (c) Kyoto allows review every five years, Paris does not - (d) Paris applies only to developed countries **Answer: (b)** — Paris is a bottom-up system of NDCs with a cycle of review; Kyoto was top-down for Annex I. **Q3.** The Global Stocktake under the Paris Agreement is conducted - (a) only once, in 2030 - (b) every year - (c) every five years, the first concluding at COP28 (2023) - (d) every ten years from 2025 **Answer: (c)** — The first Global Stocktake concluded at COP28 in Dubai. **Q4.** The term 'Intended Nationally Determined Contributions' is sometimes seen in the news in the context of - (a) capital contributed to the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank - (b) plans of action outlined by the countries of the world to combat climate change - (c) plans for the Sustainable Development Goals - (d) pledges by European countries to rehabilitate refugees **Answer: (b)** — INDCs were submitted before Paris and became NDCs on ratification. **Q5.** Which of the following was set up at COP16 (Cancun, 2010)? - (a) Global Environment Facility - (b) Clean Development Mechanism - (c) Green Climate Fund - (d) Montreal Protocol **Answer: (c)** — The Green Climate Fund was adopted at Cancun and is hosted at Songdo, Incheon (Republic of Korea). The GEF was created in 1991-92. **Q6.** 'Momentum for Change: Climate Neutral Now' is an initiative launched by - (a) the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change - (b) the UNFCCC Secretariat - (c) the UNEP Secretariat - (d) the World Meteorological Organization **Answer: (b)** — It is a UNFCCC Secretariat initiative. **Q7.** Statement-I: Carbon markets are likely to be one of the most widespread tools against climate change. Statement-II: Carbon markets transfer resources from the private sector to the State. Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements? - (a) Statement-I is incorrect but Statement-II is correct - (b) Both statements are correct and Statement-II is the correct explanation of Statement-I - (c) Statement-I is correct but Statement-II is incorrect - (d) Both statements are correct but Statement-II is not the correct explanation of Statement-I **Answer: (d)** — UPSC's key is (d): both are correct, but the transfer of resources is not the main reason carbon markets are popular; the reasons are channelling finance to emission cuts and lowering NDC costs. **Q8.** Consider the following statements about Article 6 of the Paris Agreement: 1. It sets out principles of carbon markets. 2. It also promotes non-market approaches. 3. It is mandatory for all countries to trade carbon credits. Which of the statements given above are correct? - (a) 1 and 3 only - (b) 2 and 3 only - (c) 1 and 2 only - (d) 1, 2 and 3 **Answer: (c)** — Article 6 is voluntary cooperation; it covers market (6.2, 6.4) and non-market (6.8) approaches. **Q9.** At COP29 in Baku, developed countries agreed to take the lead in mobilising climate finance of at least how much a year by 2035? - (a) $300 billion - (b) $500 billion - (c) $100 billion - (d) $1.3 trillion **Answer: (a)** — The $300 billion goal replaced the $100 billion target; the $1.3 trillion figure is the call for finance from all sources. **Q10.** Which of the following describes the Global Environment Facility? - (a) It was established on the eve of the 1992 Rio Earth Summit and serves as the financial mechanism for the CBD, UNFCCC, UNCCD, Stockholm and Minamata Conventions - (b) It is a UN body that sets binding emission targets - (c) It manages only the Ramsar Convention - (d) It was created by the Kyoto Protocol **Answer: (a)** — The GEF funds several conventions' implementation. **Q11.** How many of the following were announced as part of India's 'Panchamrit' at COP26? 1. 500 GW of non-fossil electricity capacity by 2030 2. Net zero emissions by 2070 3. Reduction of the carbon intensity of the economy by 45 per cent by 2030 - (a) None - (b) All three - (c) Only one - (d) Only two **Answer: (b)** — All three are among the five Panchamrit targets (the others: 50 per cent of energy from renewables and one billion tonnes of emission reduction by 2030). **Q12.** Which one of the following best describes the COP30 decision reached in Belém in November 2025? - (a) The first Global Stocktake - (b) A legally binding global ban on coal - (c) A treaty on plastic pollution - (d) The Global Mutirão decision calling for tripling adaptation finance by 2035, without a fossil-fuel phase-out roadmap in the formal text **Answer: (d)** — As summarised by secondary sources; the first Global Stocktake concluded at COP28. ### UPSC Previous Year Questions (PYQs) *Real UPSC Prelims questions, checked against the official paper and answer key.* **Q1.** (2016) The term 'Intended Nationally Determined Contributions' is sometimes seen in the news in the context of - (a) pledges made by the European countries to rehabilitate refugees from the war-affected Middle East - (b) capital contributed by the member countries in the establishment of Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank - (c) plan of action outlined by the countries of the world regarding Sustainable Development Goals - (d) plan of action outlined by the countries of the world to combat climate change **Answer: (d)** — Intended Nationally Determined Contributions are the climate action plans that countries submitted before the Paris Agreement to say what they would do to cut emissions. **Q2.** (2018) “Momentum for Change : Climate Neutral Now” is an initiative launched by - (a) The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change - (b) The UNEP Secretariat - (c) The World Meteorological Organization - (d) The UNFCCC Secretariat **Answer: (d)** — Climate Neutral Now is a UNFCCC Secretariat initiative, part of its Momentum for Change programme. **Q3.** (2021) The 'Common Carbon Metric', supported by UNEP, has been developed for - (a) assessing the overall carbon foot-print caused by the use of fossil fuels by the world in a unit time - (b) enabling governments to assess the overall carbon footprint caused by their countries - (c) enabling commercial farming entities around the world to enter carbon emission trading - (d) assessing the carbon footprint of building operations around the world **Answer: (d)** — The Common Carbon Metric, backed by UNEP, measures the carbon footprint of building operations around the world. **Q4.** (2022) Climate Action Tracker, which monitors the emission reduction pledges of different countries is a: - (a) Committee under “United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change” - (b) Database created by coalition of research organisations - (c) Agency promoted and financed by United Nations Environment Programme and World Bank - (d) Wing of “International Panel of Climate Change” **Answer: (b)** — The Climate Action Tracker is an independent database created by two research organisations, Climate Analytics and NewClimate Institute, that rates countries' pledges against Paris goals. **Q5.** (2022) Consider the following statements : 1. “The Climate Group” is an international non-profit organization that drives climate action by building large networks and runs them. 2. The International Energy Agency in partnership with the Climate Group launched a global initiative “EP100”. 3. EP100 brings together leading companies committed to driving innovation in energy efficiency and increasing competitiveness while delivering on emission reduction goals. 4. Some Indian companies are members of EP100. 5. The International Energy Agency is the Secretariat to the “Under2 Coalition”. Which of the statements given above are correct? - (a) 2, 3 and 5 only - (b) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 - (c) 1, 2, 4 and 5 only - (d) 1, 3 and 4 only **Answer: (d)** — The Climate Group runs the EP100 energy-productivity campaign with the Alliance to Save Energy; the IEA is not its partner. EP100 members commit to improve energy productivity, and Mahindra & Mahindra is one of them. Statements 1, 3 and 4 are right. **Q6.** (2023) Consider the following statements: Statement-I: Carbon markets are likely to be one of the most widespread tools in the fight against climate change. Statement-II: Carbon markets transfer resources from the private sector to the State. Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements? - (a) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II is the correct explanation for Statement-I - (b) Statement-I is incorrect but Statement-II is correct - (c) Statement-I is correct but Statement-II is incorrect - (d) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II is not the correct explanation for Statement-I **Answer: (d)** — Both statements are correct: carbon markets already cover more than a fifth of global emissions, and, like carbon taxes, some designs move money from firms to the State. But that transfer is not why markets are widely used; the main reasons are channelling finance into emission cuts and lowering the cost of meeting NDCs. So II does not explain I. **Q7.** (2025) Consider the following statements : Statement I : At the 28th United Nations Climate Change Conference (COP28), India refrained from signing the 'Declaration on Climate and Health'. Statement II : The COP28 Declaration on Climate and Health is a binding declaration; and if signed, it becomes mandatory to decarbonize health sector. Statement III : If India's health sector is decarbonized, the resilience of its health-care system may be compromised. Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements? - (a) Only one of the Statements II and III is correct and that explains Statement I - (b) Both Statement II and Statement III are correct but only one of them explains Statement I - (c) Both Statement II and Statement III are correct and both of them explain Statement I - (d) Neither Statement II nor Statement III is correct **Answer: (a)** — The COP28 Declaration on Climate and Health is voluntary, so II is false. India stayed out because decarbonising a stretched health system could hurt its resilience (III). Exactly one of II and III is correct and it explains I. **Q8.** (2025) Consider the following statements : Statement I : Article 6 of the Paris Agreement on climate change is frequently discussed in global discussions on sustainable development and climate change. Statement II : Article 6 of the Paris Agreement on climate change sets out the principles of carbon markets. Statement III : Article 6 of the Paris Agreement on climate change intends to promote inter-country non-market strategies to reach their climate targets. Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements? - (a) Neither Statement II nor Statement III is correct - (b) Both Statement II and Statement III are correct and both of them explain Statement I - (c) Only one of the Statements II and III is correct and that explains Statement I - (d) Both Statement II and Statement III are correct but only one of them explains Statement I **Answer: (b)** — Article 6 sets out cooperative approaches: market mechanisms under 6.2 and 6.4 and non-market approaches under 6.8. II and III are both correct and both explain why Article 6 features so often in climate discussions. ### Mains Practice Questions Use these to frame full-length answers. You don't have to answer one exactly — they show the angles UPSC tests, so let them guide which points you cover. - Describe the major outcomes of the 26th session of the Conference of the Parties (COP) to the UNFCCC. What are the commitments made by India in this conference? - Write a review on India's climate commitments under the Paris Agreement (2015) and mention how these have been further strengthened since COP26 (2021). - Distinguish between the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement. Why has the 'bottom-up' approach of NDCs been both its strength and its weakness? - Discuss the principle of Common But Differentiated Responsibilities and why it has been central to India's negotiating position. - Evaluate the outcomes of COP29 and COP30 on climate finance and adaptation from the viewpoint of developing countries. ### UPSC Mains — Previous Years’ Questions on this topic (last 10 years) These are the **actual GS Mains questions** UPSC has asked on this theme — real proof of how, and when, it is tested. Try to write a full answer to each. - 2025 (GS-III): Write a review on India's climate commitments under the Paris Agreement (2015) and mention how these have been further strengthened in COP26 (2021). In this direction, how has the first Nationally Determined Contribution intended by India been updated in 2022? - 2021 (GS-III): Describe the major outcomes of the 26th session of the Conference of the Parties (COP) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). What are the commitments made by India in this conference? (Answer in 250 words)