Indian Painting: Rock Art, Cave Murals (Ajanta to Lepakshi), Miniatures (Pala to Pahari) and Modern Schools
Start Here — The Painting Questions That Repeat
🎯 Exam priority: Steady (T2) with high repeat value. Prelims has asked: Bani Thani and the Kishangarh school (2018), Mughal emperors and album painting (2019), Bagh Caves' Hallisalasya painting (2026). Mains has asked prehistoric rock art (2015) and, as a crossover, how temple art reflects society.
The easy way to organise painting is by medium: murals (on walls and ceilings — Ajanta to Lepakshi), miniatures (small scale on palm-leaf, paper or cloth — Pala to Pahari) and modern/folk. All frescoes are murals, but not all murals are frescoes (frescoes are painted on wet plaster; Ajanta was largely tempera on dry plaster).
Rock Art and Murals
Site (state) | Date and patron | Highlights |
Bhimbetka (Madhya Pradesh); Jogimara (Chhattisgarh); Kupgal, Edakkal | Mesolithic–Chalcolithic | Red and white pigments; hunting, dancing, animals, riders; Bhimbetka is a UNESCO site (2003) |
Ajanta (Maharashtra) | 1st c. BCE (Caves 9, 10); 5th–6th c. CE (Caves 1, 2, 16, 17) — Vakatakas | Jataka stories and the Buddha's life; Padmapani and Vajrapani (Cave 1), the Dying Princess (Cave 16), Flying Apsara and the Buddha with Yashodhara and Rahula (Cave 17); rhythmic lines, red outlines, tempera on dry plaster |
Bagh (Madhya Pradesh) | 5th–6th c. CE | More worldly than spiritual; the 'Hallisalasya' panel — a circular folk dance of women (2026 PYQ); Cave 4 'Rang Mahal' |
Badami (Karnataka) | 578–79 CE; Mangalesha, Chalukya | Cave 4 (Vishnu cave): palace scene with Kirtivarman, his queen and attendants — an extension of Ajanta's style |
Ellora (Maharashtra) | 8th c. | Fragments in the Kailasa temple (Lakshmi-Vishnu, apsaras) |
Panamalai, Mandagapattu, Kanchipuram (Tamil Nadu) | Pallava; 7th–8th c. | A graceful female divinity at Panamalai; Rajasimha's Somaskanda at Kanchi; Mahendravarman I's titles 'Vichitrachitta' and 'Chitrakarapuli' |
Sittanavasal, Tirumalaipuram (Tamil Nadu) | Early Pandya; 9th c. | Jain murals on ceilings and pillars: a lotus pond, dancing apsaras in vermilion and yellow |
Brihadeeswara, Thanjavur | Chola; 11th c. (overlaid by Nayaka paintings) | Shiva in Kailasa, Tripurantaka, Nataraja; portrait of Rajaraja and his guru; the finest Chola murals |
Hampi (Virupaksha), Lepakshi (Andhra) | Vijayanagara; 14th–16th c. | Mandapa ceilings with dynastic and epic scenes; Vidyaranya's procession; Lepakshi's Virabhadra temple |
Tiruvarur, Srirangam, Thiruparakunram | Nayaka; 17th–18th c. | Ramayana, Mahabharata and Krishna-lila |
Mattancherry and Padmanabhapuram (Kerala) | 16th–18th c. | Kerala mural style: bold colours, ornamented figures |
Ajanta's style. Outward projections and flexible, rhythmic lines; body colour merges with the outline to create volume; figures are heavy like the sculptures of western India; early paintings (Caves 9 and 10) show broad figures arranged linearly, limited colours and naturalism, with geographically grouped events in tiered compositions; later paintings (5th c.) are more refined, with fine drawing and elaborate headgear. Cave excavation and painting were simultaneous.
Badami to the Nayakas — the continuity. From the sinuous lines of Badami through the Pallava, Pandya and Chola murals, the south developed a profile-face, large-eyed, two-dimensional idiom that the Vijayanagara and Nayaka painters inherited.
Miniature Painting
School | Period and region | Features |
Pala | 11th–12th c.; Bihar, Bengal | Earliest Indian miniatures: Buddhist palm-leaf manuscripts such as the Ashtasahasrika Prajnaparamita; delicate lines |
Jain (Western Indian) | 11th–15th c.; Gujarat, Rajasthan | Kalpasutra and Kalakacharya-katha manuscripts; angular figures, protruding eyes, gold and ultramarine, rectangular compartments |
Sultanate | 14th–16th c.; Delhi, Mandu | The Nimat-nama of Mandu (c. 1500) — Persian and Indian blend |
Deccani | 16th–17th c.; Ahmednagar, Bijapur, Golconda | Persian and Turkish influences; Ragamala series; richly coloured; portraits of Ibrahim Adil Shah II |
Mughal | 16th–18th c. | Court atelier (tasvir-khana); Indo-Persian style; portraiture, nature, court and battle scenes; light and shade from European prints |
Rajasthani | 16th–19th c.; Mewar, Bundi, Kota, Bikaner, Marwar, Jaipur, Kishangarh | Bright flat colours; Radha–Krishna; Ragamala and Baramasa; hunting and court scenes |
Pahari | 17th–19th c.; Basohli, Guler, Kangra, Garhwal, Chamba | Soft colours and lyric lines; Radha–Krishna; naturalism |
Company | 18th–19th c.; Patna, Murshidabad, Delhi, Tanjore | Indian artists painting for the East India Company: natural history, monuments, trades; Kalighat pat in Calcutta |
Mughal painting by reign
Emperor | Painting features |
Humayun | Brought Mir Sayyid Ali and Abdus Samad from Persia |
Akbar | Tasvir-khana; Hamzanama (1562–77), Razmnama, Akbarnama, Tutinama; Indian painters like Daswanth, Basawan and Kesu Das work with Persians; large, dynamic compositions |
Jahangir | Emphasis shifts from manuscripts to albums and portraits (2019 PYQ); naturalism in birds, animals and flowers — Ustad Mansur, Abul Hasan, Bishandas; European influence |
Shah Jahan | Refined, formal, rich borders and gold; portraits and durbar scenes (Padshahnama) |
Aurangzeb | Court patronage declines; artists disperse to Rajput and Pahari courts |
Mughal painting was a collaborative court activity of Hindu and Muslim artists producing an Indo-Persian style; themes — court scenes, hunts, battles, portraits and natural history; European light-and-shade; and both Indian colours (dark red, peacock blue) and Persian ones.
Rajasthani schools
School | Characteristics and masters |
Mewar (Udaipur) | Bold colour; earliest known Rajasthani series — Rasikapriya, Gita Govinda; Sahibdin |
Bundi–Kota | Lush nature, hunting scenes, bright colours |
Kishangarh | Elongated faces, upturned eyes, arched eyebrows, thin noses; Radha-Krishna; Nihal Chand (under Sawant Singh); the famous 'Bani Thani' (2018 PYQ) |
Jaipur, Bikaner, Marwar | Mughal influence; portraits; durbar scenes |
Pahari schools
School | Characteristics and masters |
Basohli | Earliest; bold, bright colours; Rasamanjari series; stylised figures |
Guler | Refined naturalism and delicate line; Nainsukh; precursor of Kangra |
Kangra | Soft, lyrical, graceful; Radha-Krishna, Gita Govinda; flourished under Sansar Chand |
Garhwal | Mola Ram; detailed nature |
Chamba | Local variants; handkerchief embroidery (Chamba rumal) |
Rajput painting arose from the Bhakti movement and Mughal technique; Radha-Krishna, Ragamala and Baramasa were common themes. The Kishangarh school developed in the 18th century and used much gold; Bani Thani, painted by Nihal Chand, is its icon (the 2018 PYQ asked it: 'Kishangarh school').
Prehistoric Rock Art in Detail
Bhimbetka (Raisen district, Madhya Pradesh; discovered by V.S. Wakankar, 1957) is a cluster of 700-plus rock shelters; the paintings, over many phases from the Upper Palaeolithic to the Mesolithic and later, show hunting scenes with bison, tigers, rhinoceroses, deer and elephants, dancing groups, riders and honey-collecting; the colours are mainly red (haematite) and white, sometimes green and yellow, made from minerals mixed with animal fat or plant gum. The Mesolithic scenes with group dances and festivals are lively; the later ones show warriors and horses. UNESCO inscribed Bhimbetka in 2003.
Other sites: Jogimara and Sitabenga in Chhattisgarh (with Brahmi inscriptions that recount a love story); Lakhudiyar (Almora, Uttarakhand); Kupgal and Hunsgi (Karnataka); Edakkal Caves (Wayanad, Kerala; petroglyphs); Mirzapur (Uttar Pradesh). These show an early aesthetic sense, a rhythm of daily life, and symbolic and ritual meaning (the 2015 Mains asked about Mesolithic art and aesthetic sense).
Ajanta in Greater Depth
Technique. The rock surface was coated with plaster of clay and rock-powder mixed with fibre (rice husk, hemp) and cow dung, finished with a thin lime wash; the artist drew the outline in red ochre, laid in colour and shaded it — a tempera (secco) technique on dry plaster, with natural pigments: red and yellow ochre, green earth, lamp black, white (kaolin or lime) and — at some places — imported lapis lazuli. Most murals are therefore not true frescoes.
Themes. Jataka stories (Mahajanaka, Shibi, Vishvantara, Chhaddanta, Sama, Hamsa), episodes from the Buddha's life (the Buddha's visit to Yashodhara and Rahula, Cave 17; the temptation by Mara), the Bodhisattva figures of Cave 1 (Padmapani and Vajrapani), and secular scenes of courts, processions, gardens, flowers, women and animals. The 'Dying Princess' (Cave 16, often identified as Sundari in the Nanda story) is celebrated for its emotion. The 'flying apsara' of Cave 17 shows lightness of movement.
Mains angle: Ajanta combines religious teaching with a portrait of contemporary life — clothes, jewellery, architecture, foreign visitors (the traditional reading of Cave 1's Persian embassy), and the Vakataka court. It influenced Sri Lankan (Sigiriya), Central Asian and later Indian painting.
Key Manuscripts and Themes of Miniatures
Manuscript / series | Patron or period | Notes |
Hamzanama (Dastan-i-Amir Hamza) | Akbar, 1562–77 | Over a thousand large paintings on cloth; the first great Mughal project under Mir Sayyid Ali and Abdus Samad |
Razmnama (Mahabharata in Persian) | Akbar, 1582–86 | Sanskrit epic illustrated by Indian painters |
Akbarnama and Baburnama | Akbar | Court chronicles with battle and building scenes; Basawan, Daswanth, Kesu Das |
Tutinama | Akbar, c. 1580 | Tales of a parrot; mixed Indian and Persian style |
Jahangirnama and Gulshan album | Jahangir | Portraits; natural history studies — the turkey cock and zebra by Mansur |
Padshahnama | Shah Jahan | Formal, jewel-like court history |
Nimat-nama of Mandu | Ghiyas-ud-din Khalji, c. 1500 | Sultanate recipes book; Persian and Indian blend |
Theme / text | Meaning |
Ragamala | Paintings that picture musical modes (ragas) as lovers, gods and seasons |
Baramasa | Twelve months of the year with their moods and festivals |
Nayaka–nayika | Hero–heroine classification of love, from Keshavdas's Rasikapriya and Bhanu Datta's Rasamanjari |
Gita Govinda | Jayadeva's poem of Radha and Krishna — a beloved Pahari and Rajasthani series |
Bhagavata Purana | Stories of Krishna — Krishna-lila |
Deccani painting
Flourished at Ahmednagar (the Tarif-i-Hussain Shahi, 1565), Bijapur (the Nujum-ul-Ulum, 1570; Ibrahim Adil Shah II's patronage of music and painting and his book Kitab-i-Navras), Golconda and Hyderabad. It blended Persian and Turkish elements with local Vijayanagara and Telugu tradition: rich colour, gold, long-limbed figures, Ragamala sets and portraits (a famous portrait of Malik Ambar).
Rajasthani and Pahari — the link
After Aurangzeb's withdrawal of patronage, Mughal-trained painters took work in Rajasthani courts and the Punjab Hills; the Pahari Gita Govinda series (c. 1730, Manaku and Nainsukh's workshop) set the stage for the Kangra flowering under Sansar Chand. The two traditions shared Radha–Krishna themes but differed in colour and mood: Rajasthani bold and flat; Pahari soft, lyrical and naturalistic.
Answer Skeleton — The Evolution of Indian Miniature Painting
Origins: Pala (Buddhist palm-leaf, 11th–12th c.) and Western Indian Jain manuscripts, using small compartments, angular figures and bright colours.
Fusion: the Sultanate–Persian influence, then the Mughal atelier (Humayun–Akbar) combining Persian refinement and Indian vigour.
Peak: Jahangir's naturalism; Shah Jahan's formality; regional offshoots — Deccani, Rajasthani and Pahari — as Mughal patronage declined.
Decline and transformation: printing, photography and Company painting; then the Bengal School's revival of the 'Indian' idiom.
Modern and Folk Painting
Phase | Notes |
Company and Kalighat (18th–19th c.) | European techniques adopted by Indian artists; Kalighat's bold bazaar paintings |
Raja Ravi Varma (1848–1906) | Oil painting; mythological subjects with European realism; lithographic prints |
Bengal School (from 1900s) | Abanindranath Tagore (Bharat Mata, 1905), Nandalal Bose, Asit Haldar; revival of Indian traditions — wash technique; Swadeshi movement; E.B. Havell and Coomaraswamy |
Progressive Artists' Group (1947) | F.N. Souza, S.H. Raza, M.F. Husain, K.H. Ara, H.A. Gade, S.K. Bakre; modernism after independence |
Folk and tribal painting | Madhubani (Bihar), Warli (Maharashtra), Pattachitra (Odisha, Bengal), Phad (Rajasthan), Kalamkari (Andhra), Gond (MP), Tanjore (TN); see the Culture grab-bag article |
The Bengal School's revival of Indian themes (Abanindranath Tagore's 'Bharat Mata') linked art to nationalism; Ravi Varma's prints took mythology to homes; the Progressive Artists' Group set the course of modern Indian painting after 1947.
How UPSC Has Asked It — And What Could Come Next
Seen: painting–school–painter matches (Bani Thani, 2018), emperor and style (2019), Bagh murals (2026).
Likely next: Ajanta's famous panels and caves; Mughal masters and their manuscripts (Hamzanama, Akbarnama, Padshahnama); Rajasthani and Pahari sub-schools with signature artists (Nihal Chand, Nainsukh, Mola Ram, Sahibdin, Basohli's Rasamanjari); Deccani Ragamala; Pala and Jain manuscripts; Bengal School and Ravi Varma; folk painting styles and states.
Traps: 'fresco' versus 'mural'; Kishangarh not Kangra for Bani Thani; Kangra is Pahari (lyrical), Basohli is the earliest Pahari school; Pala miniatures are Buddhist, Jain ones from Gujarat/Rajasthan; Aurangzeb withdrew patronage, which dispersed painters; Sittanavasal is Jain, Badami's Cave 4 is Vaishnava.
Further Reading
Standard NCERT-level texts and reference books on ancient, medieval and cultural Indian history (any UPSC reading list).
Test Yourself: Practice Questions & PYQs
Name the medium, the school, the region and a signature work before checking the answer.
Practice Questions
Q1. Which is the earliest known school of miniature painting in India?
(a) Kangra
(b) Kishangarh
(c) Mughal
(d) Pala
Show answer
Answer: (d) — The Pala school of Bengal and Bihar produced Buddhist palm-leaf manuscripts (11th–12th century).
Q2. Bani Thani is the best-known painting of the:
(a) Basohli school
(b) Mewar school
(c) Kishangarh school
(d) Kangra school
Show answer
Answer: (c) — Attributed to Nihal Chand, under Savant Singh of Kishangarh.
Q3. Which Mughal emperor gave great importance to individual portraits and nature studies?
(a) Shah Jahan
(b) Akbar
(c) Jahangir
(d) Aurangzeb
Show answer
Answer: (c) — Jahangir, with painters like Mansur and Abul Hasan.
Q4. The paintings of the Brihadeeswara temple at Thanjavur belong to the:
(a) Hoysalas
(b) Rashtrakutas
(c) Cholas (with Nayaka overpainting)
(d) Pallavas
Show answer
Answer: (c) — The Chola layer lay beneath a Nayaka overpainting.
Q5. The Jain paintings of Sittanavasal depict:
(a) Krishna-lila
(b) A lotus pond with dancing apsaras
(c) The Mahabharata
(d) Battle scenes
Show answer
Answer: (b) — A Jain cave with ceiling and pillar paintings.
Q6. Which of the following is a Pahari school of painting?
(a) Mewar
(b) Bundi
(c) Kangra
(d) Bikaner
Show answer
Answer: (c) — Kangra, Basohli, Guler and Garhwal are Pahari; the others are Rajasthani.
Q7. Who painted 'Bharat Mata' (1905), a landmark of the Bengal School?
(a) Abanindranath Tagore
(b) Raja Ravi Varma
(c) Amrita Sher-Gil
(d) Nandalal Bose
Show answer
Answer: (a) — A symbol of the Swadeshi movement.
Q8. Which Mughal emperor established the Tasvir-khana (painting workshop)?
(a) Jahangir
(b) Babur
(c) Akbar
(d) Humayun
Show answer
Answer: (c) — Akbar institutionalised painting; Humayun had brought the Persian masters.
Q9. A mural painted on wet plaster is called a:
(a) Tempera
(b) Fresco
(c) Miniature
(d) Fresco-secco
Show answer
Answer: (b) — Fresco (buono) is painted on wet plaster; secco on dry.
Q10. Bhimbetka, with prehistoric rock paintings, is located in:
(a) Chhattisgarh
(b) Odisha
(c) Madhya Pradesh
(d) Karnataka
Show answer
Answer: (c) — Raisen district; UNESCO site since 2003.
UPSC Previous Year Questions (PYQs)
Real UPSC Prelims questions on painting (2018, 2019, 2026), answers matched to UPSC's official key (2026 provisional). Explanations in our own words.
Q11. (UPSC Prelims 2018) The well-known painting "Bani Thani" belongs to the
(a) Kangra school
(b) Kishangarh school
(c) Bundi school
(d) Jaipur school
Show answer
Answer: (b) — 'Bani Thani', the elegant portrait attributed to Nihal Chand, belongs to the Kishangarh school of Rajasthan (patron Sawant Singh / 'Nagari Das').
Q12. (UPSC Prelims 2019) Who among the following Mughal Emperors shifted emphasis from illustrated manuscripts to album and individual portrait?
(a) Akbar
(b) Jahangir
(c) Shah Jahan
(d) Humayun
Show answer
Answer: (b) — Jahangir moved Mughal painting from illustrated manuscripts to albums and individual portraits.
Q13. (UPSC Prelims 2026, provisional key) The Hallisalasya painting in the Bagh Caves represents:
(a) The depiction of Shiva and Parvati on Kailasha
(b) Buddha in a meditative pose
(c) Samudramanthan (Churning of the Ocean)
(d) A joyous folk dance
Show answer
Answer: (d) — The 'Hallisalasya' panel in the Bagh Caves shows a joyous circular folk dance of women. (Provisional key.)
Mains Practice Questions
Use these to frame full-length answers. You don't have to answer one exactly — they show the angles UPSC tests, so let them guide which points you cover.
Trace the evolution of mural painting from Ajanta to Lepakshi.
Compare the Rajasthani and Pahari schools of miniature painting.
Discuss the development of Mughal painting under Akbar and Jahangir.
How did the Bengal School contribute to nationalism and modern Indian art?
Why is prehistoric rock art important for understanding early aesthetic sense?