Performing Arts I: Classical and Folk Dance — Eight Classical Forms, Chhau, Folk Traditions and UNESCO Recognition
Start Here — Why Dance Is a Score-Maker
🎯 Exam priority: Steady (T2). Dance appears in Prelims as 'form–state–feature' matches, martial arts and UNESCO heritage: Thang-Ta, Chapchar Kut and Khongjom Parba (2018), the 2023 listing of Garba on the UNESCO list (2024), and earlier questions on Sattriya (2014), Manipuri Sankirtana (2017), Kuchipudi (2012), Tribhanga (2013) and Kalaripayattu. In Mains: the Tandava in early inscriptions (2013).
Two layers: (1) the classical theory and the eight/nine classical forms, each with its state, features and exponents; (2) the folk dances, martial arts and UNESCO elements by region. Learn the tables below and the five-line profile of each dance (state — origin — signature — music — exponents).
Concept | Meaning |
Natyashastra (Bharata Muni) | The foundational treatise on drama, dance, music and aesthetics; the source of the rasa theory |
Abhinaya Darpana (Nandikeshvara) | A manual of gestures, mudras and postures, especially for Bharatanatyam |
Nritta, Nritya, Natya | Pure rhythmic dance; expressive dance with meaning; dramatic narration |
Abhinaya (four kinds) | Angika (body), Vachika (speech), Aharya (costume, make-up), Sattvika (mind, emotion) |
Rasa and bhava | Nine rasas: shringara, hasya, karuna, raudra, veera, bhayanaka, bibhatsa, adbhuta, shanta |
Lasya and Tandava | Feminine grace (Parvati) and masculine vigour (Shiva); Shiva's cosmic dance has five acts — srishti, sthiti, samhara, tirobhava, anugraha |
Mudras and hastas | Hand gestures; the grammar of the dance |
Guru–shishya parampara | Transmission from master to disciple |
The Classical Dances
The Sangeet Natak Akademi (founded 1952) recognises eight classical dances; Chhau is often added as a ninth in lists by the Ministry of Culture. All claim descent from the Natyashastra and require technical depth, a spiritual theme, a codified grammar and a guru–shishya tradition.
Dance and state | Origin and history | Features | Exponents and notes |
Bharatanatyam (Tamil Nadu) | Sadir / Dasi Attam of the temple devadasis; systematised by the Tanjore Quartet in the 19th c.; revived in the 20th c. | Solo (ekaharya); angular lines, fixed adavus and araimandi (half-sit); margam: alarippu, jatiswaram, shabdam, varnam, padam, tillana; Carnatic music with nattuvangam | Rukmini Devi Arundale (Kalakshetra, 1936), E. Krishna Iyer, Balasaraswati |
Kathak (North India) | From katha (story); temple storytellers (kathakars); Mughal courts added Persian elements; Lucknow under Wajid Ali Shah | Footwork (tatkar), spins (chakkar), tukra; Hindustani music with thumri and tarana; jugalbandi with the tabla; gharanas of Jaipur (footwork), Lucknow (expression), Banaras and Raigarh | Birju Maharaj, Sitara Devi, Shambhu Maharaj |
Kathakali (Kerala) | From Ramanattam and Krishnattam; 17th c.; 'story-play' | Elaborate make-up (pacha green for noble, katti for villains), mudras and facial expression, chenda and maddalam | Kerala Kalamandalam (Vallathol, 1930); themes of Ramayana, Mahabharata and Puranas |
Kuchipudi (Andhra Pradesh) | Village of Kuchipudi; systematised by Siddhendra Yogi (Bhamakalapam) in the 17th c.; once by male brahmins | Dance-drama with dialogue; tarangam (dancing on the rim of a brass plate with a pot of water); Manduka Shabdam | Vempati Chinna Satyam, Yamini Krishnamurthy, Raja–Radha Reddy |
Odissi (Odisha) | Mahari (temple women) and Gotipua (boys dressed as girls); depicted at Udayagiri–Khandagiri, Konark; Odra-Magadhi in the Natyashastra | Tribhanga (three-bend) and chowk (square, masculine) postures; Jayadeva's Gita Govinda; sculptural poses | Kelucharan Mohapatra, Sanjukta Panigrahi |
Manipuri (Manipur) | Raas Lila of the Vaishnava bhakti (15th–18th c.) | Soft, flowing movements; no ghungroos; stiff skirt (kumil); the pung drum; Jagoi and Cholom; Nata Sankirtana inscribed by UNESCO in 2013 | Guru Bipin Singh, the Jhaveri sisters |
Mohiniyattam (Kerala) | 'Dance of the enchantress'; named for Vishnu as Mohini; Swathi Thirunal's patronage | Gentle, swaying lasya; white costume with gold kasavu border; Carnatic music | Kalamandalam Kalyanikutty Amma, Bharati Shivaji |
Sattriya (Assam) | Introduced by Srimanta Sankaradeva in the 15th c. in the Vaishnava monasteries (sattras); recognised by the Sangeet Natak Akademi in 2000 | Borgeet devotional songs; khol drum; Ankiya Nat / Bhaona plays; once performed by male monks (bhokots) | Guru Jatin Goswami, Indira P.P. Bora |
Tribhanga (the 2013 PYQ): the body is bent at three places — neck, waist and knee — creating an S-curve; an ancient pose of sculpture and dance (Odissi, Chola Parvati, Chandella figures). Its correct description: one leg bent, and the body slightly curved at the waist and neck.
Sattriya (the 2014 PYQ): a combination of music, dance and drama; a centuries-old living tradition of the Vaishnavites of Assam; based on classical ragas and talas of devotional songs (borgeets) composed by Sankaradeva and Madhavadeva — not by Tulsidas, Kabir and Mirabai.
Manipuri Sankirtana (the 2017 PYQ): a song and dance performance narrating the life of Krishna; cymbals (kartal) are not the only instrument — the pung drum is central.
Kuchipudi versus Bharatanatyam (the 2012 PYQ): dancers occasionally speak dialogues in Kuchipudi, not in Bharatanatyam; dancing on the edge of a brass plate (tarangam) is a Kuchipudi feature.
Chhau
Variant | State | Feature |
Seraikella Chhau | Jharkhand | Masked; royal patronage |
Purulia Chhau | West Bengal | Masked; powerful, martial |
Mayurbhanj Chhau | Odisha | Unmasked; martial and acrobatic |
Chhau is a martial, mask-based (except in Mayurbhanj) tradition of the eastern states with themes from the epics and local legends; UNESCO listed it in 2010.
Folk Dances, Martial Arts and Theatre
Region | Dances and forms |
Gujarat | Garba, Dandiya Raas (Garba inscribed on UNESCO's list in 2023) |
Rajasthan | Ghoomar (women behind the veil), Kalbelia (UNESCO 2010), Panihari, Kachhi Ghodi, Terah Tali |
Punjab and Haryana | Bhangra, Giddha, Jhumar, Kikli |
Maharashtra | Lavani, Koli, Tamasha |
Karnataka | Yakshagana, Dollu Kunitha, Veeragase |
Kerala | Theyyam, Padayani, Kolkali, Thiruvathira, Kutiyattam (UNESCO 2008) |
Tamil Nadu | Karagattam, Kavadi, Oyilattam, Therukoothu |
Assam and the North-East | Bihu, Bagurumba, Cheraw (Mizoram bamboo dance), Wangala (Garo), Hornbill-festival dances (Nagaland), Ponung (Arunachal), Rouf (J&K) |
Odisha and East | Sambalpuri, Ghumura, Paika; Santhali dances; Jhumar; Baul songs |
Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand | Ramlila (UNESCO 2008), Raslila, Charkula, Ramman (UNESCO 2009) |
Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh | Gond and Bhil dances, Karma, Panthi, Maach (theatre) |
Martial arts. Kalaripayattu (Kerala; ancient, with weapons and bare-hand forms), Silambam (Tamil Nadu; staff), Gatka (Punjab; Sikh sword-play), Thang-Ta (Manipur; sword and spear — the 2018 PYQ placed it wrongly in Sikkim), Mardani Khel (Maharashtra), Paika (Odisha), Chhau (a martial dance).
The 2018 PYQ: Chapchar Kut is a Mizoram festival (spring), Khongjom Parba is a Manipuri ballad about the 1891 Battle of Khongjom, and Thang-Ta belongs to Manipur — so only pairs 1 and 2 are right.
UNESCO's Intangible Cultural Heritage and Related 2025 Recognitions
Year | Element |
2008 | Kutiyattam; Vedic chanting; Ramlila |
2009 | Ramman (Garhwal) |
2010 | Kalbelia dance; Chhau dance; Mudiyettu (Kerala) |
2012 | Buddhist chanting of Ladakh |
2013 | Sankirtana of Manipur |
2014 | Thatheras' brass-and-copper craft, Jandiala Guru, Punjab |
2016 | Yoga |
2017 | Kumbh Mela |
2021 | Durga Puja in Kolkata |
2023 | Garba of Gujarat (the 2024 PYQ: the latest inscription at that time) |
2025 | Deepavali (10 December 2025, at the 20th committee session held in the Red Fort, New Delhi — India's 16th element) |
In April 2025 UNESCO inscribed the manuscripts of the Bhagavad Gita and the Natyashastra on the Memory of the World Register — a recognition of the text that grounds Indian dance and drama.
The 2024 PYQ asked for the 'latest inclusion' on the ICH list as of its date: Garba (2023), not Chhau (2010), Durga Puja (2021) or Kumbh (2017). The question is now out of date — Deepavali (2025) is the newest element, so always read the date of a 'latest' question.
Music, Costume, Inscriptions and Institutions
Dance | Typical music and instruments | Costume cue |
Bharatanatyam | Carnatic vocal, mridangam, violin, flute, nattuvangam (cymbals) | Pleated fan, silk saree, temple jewellery |
Kathak | Hindustani vocal; tabla, pakhawaj, sarangi | Anarkali and churidar or saree; ghungroos |
Kathakali | Chenda, maddalam, ilathalam; singers on stage | Huge skirt, crown, face painting |
Kuchipudi | Carnatic music; mridangam, violin | Like Bharatanatyam, with a braided hair-piece |
Odissi | Odissi music, mardala (drum), flute | Silver jewellery, a tikka |
Manipuri | Pung (drum), kartal, flute, esraj | Kumil skirt, velvet blouse, veil |
Mohiniyattam | Carnatic vocal; edakka, veena | White and gold kasavu saree |
Sattriya | Khol, cymbals (manjira), borgeet | Assamese silk (pat), mekhela |
Dance in stone and inscription. The Natyashastra lists 108 karanas (units of movement), carved on the gopurams of the Chidambaram Nataraja temple and the Brihadeeswara temple at Thanjavur; the Tandava is described in the Vedas, Puranas and Jain and Buddhist texts, and shown in the Nataraja image; early inscriptions (Pallava, Chola, Chalukya) record temple dancers (devadasis, rudraganikas) and endowments for dance — the material for the 2013 Mains question.
Devadasis and revival. Temple dancing declined under colonial pressure and reformist campaigns against the devadasi system (the 1947 Madras Devadasis Act abolished dedication); in the 1930s Rukmini Devi Arundale and E. Krishna Iyer revived Bharatanatyam as a respectable art, and Kalakshetra (1936) became its leading school.
Institutions. The Sangeet Natak Akademi (1952, New Delhi) is the national academy for music, dance and drama, awarding fellowships (Akademi Ratna) and awards; the National School of Drama (1959); Kalakshetra (Chennai); Kerala Kalamandalam (Cheruthuruthy); Indian Council for Cultural Relations.
How UPSC Has Asked It — And What Could Come Next
Seen: festival/ballad/martial-art pair matches (2018), UNESCO list (2024), dance features and pose names (2012–2017), Mains on Tandava (2013).
Likely next: dance–state–founder matches (Siddhendra Yogi, Sankaradeva, Rukmini Devi); costume and music clues; Gotipua and Mahari; the number of classical dances; folk dance–state pairs (Ghoomar, Kalbelia, Cheraw, Wangala, Bagurumba, Karagattam); UNESCO elements added in 2024–2025; Natyashastra and Abhinaya Darpana; Sangeet Natak Akademi awards and fellowships.
Traps: Mohiniyattam is Kerala, not Odisha; Manipuri dancers do not wear ghungroos; Kathak shows Persian and Mughal court influence while Bharatanatyam kept its temple form; Chhau masks are used in Seraikella and Purulia but not in Mayurbhanj; Kuchipudi is from Andhra, not Tamil Nadu.
Further Reading
Standard NCERT-level texts and reference books on ancient, medieval and cultural Indian history (any UPSC reading list).
Test Yourself: Practice Questions & PYQs
For each dance: state, origin, signature feature, music, exponent.
Practice Questions
Q1. Which classical dance developed from the devadasi tradition of Tamil Nadu and was revived by Rukmini Devi Arundale?
(a) Mohiniyattam
(b) Odissi
(c) Kuchipudi
(d) Bharatanatyam
Show answer
Answer: (d) — Bharatanatyam, earlier called Sadir or Dasi Attam.
Q2. Dancing on the rim of a brass plate (tarangam) is a feature of:
(a) Sattriya
(b) Manipuri
(c) Kathak
(d) Kuchipudi
Show answer
Answer: (d) — A Kuchipudi item.
Q3. Which dance is traditionally linked to the monasteries (sattras) of Assam?
(a) Sattriya
(b) Bihu
(c) Bagurumba
(d) Ankiya
Show answer
Answer: (a) — Sattriya, introduced by Sankaradeva, performed in sattras.
Q4. The 'Gotipua' tradition is a precursor of:
(a) Kathakali
(b) Odissi
(c) Kathak
(d) Mohiniyattam
Show answer
Answer: (b) — Gotipuas (boys dressed as girls) and Maharis (temple dancers) fed into Odissi.
Q5. In Kathakali, which colour is used for the make-up of noble characters?
(a) Pacha (green)
(b) Katti (red)
(c) Black
(d) White
Show answer
Answer: (a) — Pacha for noble or divine characters; katti for villains.
Q6. 'Raas Lila' is the theme of which classical dance?
(a) Kathakali
(b) Bharatanatyam
(c) Chhau
(d) Manipuri
Show answer
Answer: (d) — The Vaishnava dance of Manipur.
Q7. Which of the following is NOT an acting element (abhinaya) in the Natyashastra?
(a) Vachika
(b) Angika
(c) Aharya
(d) Gharana
Show answer
Answer: (d) — The four abhinayas are angika, vachika, aharya and sattvika; gharana belongs to music.
Q8. Which dance form was inscribed on UNESCO's list in 2010 from Rajasthan?
(a) Ghoomar
(b) Gair
(c) Kalbelia
(d) Charkula
Show answer
Answer: (c) — The Kalbelia songs and dances of Rajasthan.
Q9. 'Thang-Ta' is a martial art of:
(a) Sikkim
(b) Mizoram
(c) Nagaland
(d) Manipur
Show answer
Answer: (d) — Sword and spear martial art of Manipur.
Q10. Which of these was inscribed on UNESCO's ICH list in 2023?
(a) Kumbh Mela
(b) Yoga
(c) Durga Puja
(d) Garba of Gujarat
Show answer
Answer: (d) — Garba, in December 2023.
Q11. Chhau without masks is associated with:
(a) Ranchi
(b) Seraikella
(c) Mayurbhanj
(d) Purulia
Show answer
Answer: (c) — The Odisha variant is unmasked.
Q12. The textual source of the rasa theory is the:
(a) Abhinaya Darpana
(b) Sangita Ratnakara
(c) Kamasutra
(d) Natyashastra
Show answer
Answer: (d) — Bharata's Natyashastra.
UPSC Previous Year Questions (PYQs)
Real UPSC Prelims questions on cultural traditions (2018 and 2024), answers matched to UPSC's official key. Explanations in our own words.
Q13. (UPSC Prelims 2018) Consider the following pairs: Tradition : State 1. Chapchar Kut festival : Mizoram 2. Khongjom Parba ballad : Manipur 3. Thang-Ta dance : Sikkim Which of the pairs given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 1 and 2
(c) 3 only
(d) 2 and 3
Show answer
Answer: (b) — Pairs 1 and 2 are correct: Chapchar Kut is a Mizo festival, and the Khongjom Parba ballad is from Manipur. Thang-Ta is a martial art of Manipur, not a dance of Sikkim.
Q14. (UPSC Prelims 2024) Which one of the following was the latest inclusion in the Intangible Cultural Heritage List of UNESCO?
(a) Durga puja
(b) Kumbh mela
(c) Chhau dance
(d) Garba dance
Show answer
Answer: (d) — At the time of the question the latest inclusion was Garba of Gujarat (inscribed December 2023); Chhau (2010), Durga Puja (2021) and Kumbh Mela (2017) were earlier. (Deepavali was added in December 2025.)
Mains Practice Questions
Use these to frame full-length answers. You don't have to answer one exactly — they show the angles UPSC tests, so let them guide which points you cover.
Distinguish classical dance from folk dance with examples.
Discuss the distinguishing features of any four classical dance forms of India.
Examine the role of the devadasi and temple traditions in the shaping of Bharatanatyam and Odissi.
How did the bhakti movement shape Sattriya and Manipuri dance?
Discuss the Tandava dance as recorded in early Indian inscriptions and texts.
Mains PYQs — Last 10 Years (UPSC GS-I)
The exact questions UPSC has actually asked on this topic over the last decade. Practise writing full-length answers to these.
Discuss the Tandava dance as recorded in early Indian inscriptions. (UPSC GS-I, 2013)