UPSC — UPSC Notes, PYQs & Practice

131 free UPSC notes on upsc: Why the Mughal Empire Declined (1707–1761); The Later Mughals; Mysore under Haidar Ali & Tipu Sultan.

• Why the Mughal Empire Declined (1707–1761): Causes Explained
• The Later Mughals: Emperors After Aurangzeb (1707–1857)
• Mysore under Haidar Ali & Tipu Sultan: the Tiger of Mysore, Army Modernisation, Reforms and the Fall of Srirangapatnam (18th Century)
• The Coming of the Europeans to India: Portuguese, Dutch, English, French & Danish (1498-1664)
• The Three Anglo-Maratha Wars & the Fall of the Marathas (1775-1818): Salbai, the Subsidiary Alliance, Bassein and the End of the Peshwa
• The Annexation of Sindh & Punjab: The Anglo-Sikh Wars (1843-1849)
• Frontier Wars & the Annexation of Awadh: Nepal, Burma, Afghanistan (1814–1856)
• British Social & Cultural Policy: Reform & the Rise of English Education
• The Revolt of 1857: Causes & Outbreak — Economic, Political, Social-Religious & Military Grievances and the Spark
• Administrative Changes After 1858: The Crown Takeover & the Councils
• Reorganising the Raj After 1858: Army, Services, Princely States & Divide-and-Rule
• The Gandhian Mass Era Begins: Champaran, Jallianwala Bagh & the Khilafat-Non-Cooperation Movement (1917-1922)
• Read This First — How UPSC Tests Indian Polity & How to Crack It
• Historical Background of the Constitution: The Acts that Shaped India (1773–1947)
• Making of the Constitution: The Constituent Assembly, the Objectives Resolution & the Drafting Committee
• Read This First — How UPSC Tests Geography & How to Crack It
• The Earth in the Universe: Big Bang, Solar System & Earth's Evolution (UPSC Geography)
• Read This First: How UPSC Tests Ancient, Medieval & Art-Culture
• Interior of the Earth: Seismic Waves, Shadow Zone & Layers (UPSC Geography)
• Plate Tectonics: Continental Drift, Sea-floor Spreading & Plate Boundaries (UPSC)
• Reconstructing Ancient India: Sources, Historiography & Dating
• Prehistory of India: Stone Age to Chalcolithic & Megalithic Cultures
• The Indus (Harappan) Civilisation: Town Planning, Sites, Economy & Decline
• Earthquakes: Causes, Richter & Mercalli Scales, Belts & Seismic Zones (UPSC)
• Volcanism & Volcanic Landforms: Types, Deccan Traps & Hazards (UPSC Geography)
• Rocks & the Rock Cycle: Igneous, Sedimentary & Metamorphic (UPSC Geography)
• The Vedic Age: Early (Rig Vedic) vs Later Vedic — Polity, Society, Economy & Religion
• Mahajanapadas, the Rise of Magadha & the Iranian and Macedonian Invasions
• Jainism & the Heterodox Ferment: Mahavira, Doctrines, the Great Schism & the Ajivikas
• Buddhism: The Buddha, Four Noble Truths, the Councils, Schools, Spread & Decline
• Read This First — How UPSC Tests Modern History & How to Crack It
• Mountain Building (Orogeny): Fold, Block, Volcanic & Residual Mountains, Plateaus & Plains (UPSC Geography)
• Weathering, Mass Wasting & the Cycle of Erosion (UPSC Geography)
• Landforms by Agents of Erosion: Fluvial, Glacial, Aeolian, Karst & Coastal (UPSC Geography)
• Concept & Salient Features of the Constitution of India (UPSC Polity)
• Preamble of the Constitution of India: Key Words, Objectives & Landmark Cases (UPSC Polity)
• Union and Its Territory (Articles 1-4): Union of States, Reorganisation & Berubari (UPSC Polity)
• Citizenship in India (Articles 5-11, Citizenship Act 1955 & CAA 2019) — UPSC Polity
• Fundamental Rights (Part III, Articles 12-35): The Six Rights, Five Writs & Landmark Cases (UPSC Polity)
• The Atmosphere: Composition, Structure & the Heat Budget (UPSC Geography)
• Temperature, Pressure Belts & Global Winds (UPSC Geography)
• Atmospheric Moisture: Humidity, Clouds & Precipitation (UPSC Geography)
• Air Masses, Fronts, Cyclones & World Climate (UPSC Geography)
• Directive Principles of State Policy & Fundamental Duties (Part IV & IVA): Classification, the FR-vs-DPSP Cases & Article 51A (UPSC Polity)
• Amendment of the Constitution & the Basic Structure (Article 368): The Three Routes, Kesavananda Bharati & Minerva Mills (UPSC Polity)
• Parliamentary System of Government (Articles 74-75, 163-164): Features, the Presidential Contrast & Why India Chose It (UPSC Polity)
• Federal System of India: Federal vs Unitary Features, Quasi-Federal, Cooperative Federalism & Bommai (UPSC Polity)
• Centre-State & Inter-State Relations (Part XI-XIII): Legislative, Administrative, Financial Relations, the Inter-State Council & Zonal Councils (UPSC Polity)
• Emergency Provisions (Part XVIII, Articles 352-360): National Emergency, President's Rule, Financial Emergency & the Bommai Case (UPSC Polity)
• Parliament of India I: Houses, Membership, Officers & Sessions (Arts 79–105) — UPSC Polity
• Parliament of India II: Lawmaking, Money Bills, Budget & Committees (UPSC Polity)
• Supreme Court of India: Composition, Independence & Jurisdiction (UPSC Polity)
• Judicial Review, Judicial Activism & PIL (UPSC Polity)
• Governor, Chief Minister & State Council of Ministers (UPSC Polity)
• State Legislature — Vidhan Sabha, Vidhan Parishad & Legislative Procedure (Art 168–212)
• High Court, State Judiciary & Tribunals (Art 214–237, 323A–323B)
• Consumer Commissions, Lok Adalats & Other Special Courts (UPSC Polity)
• Panchayati Raj & Municipalities — the 73rd & 74th Amendments (Art 243–243ZG)
• Union Territories & Scheduled/Tribal Areas — Fifth & Sixth Schedules (UPSC Polity)
• Election Commission of India — Article 324, Anoop Baranwal & the 2023 Appointment Act
• UPSC & State Public Service Commissions — Articles 315–323 (UPSC Polity)
• Finance Commission & GST Council — Articles 280 & 279-A (UPSC Polity)
• National Commissions for SCs, STs, BCs & Linguistic Minorities (UPSC Polity)
• CAG, Attorney General & Advocate General (Art 148-151, 76, 165) — UPSC Polity
• NITI Aayog — UPSC Polity
• NHRC & SHRC (Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993) — UPSC Polity
• NCW, NCPCR & National Commission for Minorities — UPSC Polity
• Information Commissions & RTI (CIC & SIC) — UPSC Polity
• CVC & CBI — UPSC Polity
• Lokpal & Lokayuktas — UPSC Polity
• NIA & NDMA — UPSC Polity
• Bar Council, Law Commission, Delimitation Commission & North Eastern Council — UPSC Polity
• Co-operative Societies & Official Language — UPSC Polity
• Public Services & Rights/Liabilities of the Government — UPSC Polity
• Special Provisions for Certain Classes & Some States (Art 371) — UPSC Polity
• Political Parties & Regional Parties — UPSC Polity
• Elections & Election Laws — UPSC Polity
• Electoral Reforms & Voting Behaviour — UPSC Polity
• Coalition Government & Anti-Defection Law (10th Schedule) — UPSC Polity
• Pressure Groups, National Integration & Foreign Policy — UPSC Polity
• National Commission to Review the Working of the Constitution (NCRWC) — UPSC Polity
• Landmark Judgements and Their Impact — UPSC Polity
• Judgements Expanding Article 21 & Judgements on Constitutional Amendments — UPSC Polity
• Important Doctrines of Constitutional Law — UPSC Polity
• World Constitutions — Comparative Snapshot — UPSC Polity
• Indian Polity Complete — Prelims vs Mains Revision Roadmap — UPSC Polity
• Oceans — Relief, Temperature & Salinity (UPSC Geography)
• Ocean Currents, Water Masses & Marine Productivity (UPSC Geography)
• Tides; Coral Reefs & Marine Ecosystems (UPSC Geography)
• India — Location, Extent & Why a "Subcontinent" (UPSC Geography)
• Structure & Physiography — Himalayas, Plains, Peninsula, Coasts, Islands (UPSC Geography)
• Indian Drainage — Himalayan vs Peninsular Systems (UPSC Geography)
• Indian Climate & the Monsoon (UPSC Geography)
• Indian Soils — Types, Distribution & Degradation (UPSC Geography)
• Natural Vegetation & Forests of India (UPSC Geography)
• India's Water Resources — Rivers, Groundwater, Interlinking & Harvesting (UPSC Geography)
• Natural Hazards in India — Floods, Droughts, Landslides & Cyclones (UPSC Geography)
• Population — Distribution, Density, Growth & Demographic Transition (UPSC Geography)
• Migration & Human Development (UPSC Geography)
• Human Settlements — Rural & Urban; Smart Cities (UPSC Geography)
• Primary Activities & Indian Agriculture — Cropping, Revolutions, Regions (UPSC Geography)
• World Agriculture & Cash Crops (UPSC Geography)
• Minerals & Energy Resources of India (UPSC Geography)
• Energy — Conventional & Renewable; Oil Geography (UPSC Geography)
• Manufacturing & Industrial Location (UPSC Geography)
• Transport, Communication & Trade (UPSC Geography)
• Geospatial Tech & Economic/Geopolitical Geography (UPSC Geography)
• Biogeography & World Regions (UPSC Geography)
• Basic Economic Concepts for UPSC: Scarcity, Opportunity Cost, Demand-Supply, Price Floors & Ceilings
• National Income Accounting: GDP, GNP, NNP, GVA, Base Year 2022-23 & the New GDP Series (UPSC Economy)
• Money & Money Supply for UPSC: M0, M1, M3, Money Multiplier, Legal Tender & 2025-26 Data
• Monetary Policy & the RBI for UPSC: MPC, Inflation Targeting, Repo, SDF, MSF, CRR, SLR & Oct 2026 Hike
• Inflation & Business Cycles for UPSC: CPI vs WPI, Core Inflation, 2025-26 Disinflation & the New CPI Series
• Banking Structure & Regulation for UPSC: Bank Types, Basel III, NPAs, SARFAESI, IBC & 2025-26 Health Check
• Financial Markets for UPSC: Money & Capital Markets, SEBI, Bonds, AIFs, Mutual Funds & Securities Markets Code 2025
• Government Budget & Fiscal Policy for UPSC: Deficits, FRBM, Debt Anchor & Union Budget 2026-27 Numbers
• Taxation for UPSC: Direct vs Indirect Taxes, GST 2.0, Income Tax Act 2025 & Budget 2026-27 Tax Measures
• Fiscal Federalism & the 16th Finance Commission: 41% Devolution, New Formula, Local Body & Disaster Grants (UPSC)
• Income & Employment Determination: Aggregate Demand, Multiplier & Paradox of Thrift (UPSC Economy)
• Balance of Payments, Exchange Rates & Forex Reserves for UPSC: CAD, REER, Reserves USD 734.6 bn (Oct 2026)
• Trade, FDI, FPI & Capital Account Convertibility for UPSC: FTAs, US Tariffs, PLI & FEMA Rules (2025-26)
• International Economic Institutions for UPSC: IMF, SDR, World Bank, WTO, AIIB, NDB & EU Bodies
• The Indian Economy at Independence & the Planning Era (1950-90): Five-Year Plans, Land Reforms, Licence Raj
• The 1991 Economic Reforms: Liberalisation, Privatisation, Globalisation (LPG) & Their Assessment for UPSC
• Agriculture I for UPSC: Growth, Land Records, Irrigation, Fertiliser (NPK Imbalance) & Missions (2025-26)
• Read This First — How UPSC Tests Indian Economy and How to Crack It
• Industry for UPSC: MSME Definition 2025, PLI (14 sectors), National Manufacturing Mission, Semiconductors, EVs and PSU Disinvestment
• Employment and Labour Codes for UPSC: PLFS, 29 Laws into 4 Codes, Gig Workers, e-Shram, PMVBRY and Skilling (2025-26)
• Services, Urbanisation and AI for UPSC: Services Share, GCCs, Smart Cities, Urban Finance and India's AI Strategy (Survey 2025-26)
• Economic Survey 2025-26 for UPSC: Chapter-wise Numbers, New Ideas and Likely Questions
• Union Budget 2026-27 for UPSC: Deficits, Debt Path, Tax Changes and Likely Questions